TOPIC 1:
SOURCES AND IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY
Meaning of history
History is the study of man and his activities in different times. These activities enable man to obtain his needs. Man’s basic needs are food, cloths, and shelter
In general, history can also refer to an academic discipline, which uses a narrative to examine and analyze the sequences of past events, and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them. It is the record of human activities, which enable man to survival and attain essential needs from the environment.
IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HISTORY.
1. Understand how African societies were formed, how they developed and the factors that influenced this development.
2. It also allows us to develop an understanding of the events, conditions and factors that shaped the past and those, which have shaped the present conditions of the world in order to predict the future.
3. Historical knowledge makes the present comprehensive, which is why journalists and writers of sensational stories spend some time explaining the history of a particular incident; it is only when one knows the past of a person or an incident that the present can became meaningful.
4. Develop an understanding and appreciation of the cultural, political, economic and technological advancements made by African societies before and after colonial rulers.
5. Develop the basic skills of critical thinking, reasoning, judgment, empathy and effective participation in human developmental activities.
6. Studying history also helps us to understand and appreciate the efforts made and strategies used by African people to regain their independence and resist neo-colonialism
7. Develop, understand and appreciation the need for African unity, cooperation and interdependence, conflict resolution and effective participation in social, economic and political development of Africa.
8. It also helps us to develop an understanding of the relationships between African’s development problems and foreign intrusion, colonial domination, cultural subjugation and economic exploitation at various stages in history.
9. Acquire knowledge for its own sake as you enjoy a novel with fiction, a film with an interesting plot. It is not clear why people are interested in these ventures and in the same way, people do enjoy to knows the history of particular topics.
10. Develop our patriotism, history students know their heroes and heroes and traitors. This makes history a sensitive subject in places where political leaders are not sure of their legitimacy.
SOURCES OF HISTORY
Refers to the avenues that can be used to get historical information. It requires inter-disciplinary Sources of history approach in order to get the actual historical information.
Therefore, the following are sources of history/historical knowledge:
a) Oral tradition
b) Historical sites
c) Written records/documents
d) Archives
e) Museums
f) Archeology
g) Audio- visual record, e.g. Cassets, Cd’s, and TV programs etc.
h) Anthropology
i) Linguistics.
1. ORAL TRADITION:
This involves the passing information by word of mouth through talking and listening.
Oral tradition passes historical information into two ways
a) Through culture practices like art, music, religion, riddles, songs, proverbs, superstition, poems andstories.
b) Narration of past events.
FUNCTION OF ORAL TRADITION
It preserves historical information of society
I t collects and pass historical information between generations in the society.
It helps researchers in data collection.
ADVANTAGES OF ORAL TRADITION
It preserve and reveal historical information which are not recorded
Both illiterate and literate people can obtain historical information.
Within oral tradition, there are warning and teachings.
Is the easiest and cheapest method of obtaining information.
It is live source, since it involves physical interaction.
DISADVANTAGES OF ORAL TRADITION
1. It needs much attention and power of memory
2.False information can be given by storyteller.
3. Narration of historical events are centered to those people of status i.e.
Kings, Queens, Chief. White talking little about common society.
4. There is a language problem when narrator uses vernacular language.
5. It is difficult to distinguish what is real and what is imaginary information.
6. Translation is very difficult because some languages are no longer in existence.
2. HISTORICAL SITES:
Are special places where by the past human remains can be found and shown to the public. It is a place where the remains of once lived human in the past can be found.
1. They comprise man’s physical development, tools that were made and used from time to time.
2. In these areas we find /see past human products and animal bones.
Examples of historical sites in Tanzania include
Isimila, Olduvai George, Kondoa Irangi, Bagamoyo,
Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mafia, Engaruka, Kagera etc
In Uganda Nsongezi, Biggo, Ntubi, Rusinga Island, Magosi and Ishago.
In Kenya. Lake Rudolf (Turkana), Lake Naivasha, Njoro, Olongesailie, Lake Magadi, Lamu, Mombasa and mt. Kenya.
FUNCTIONS OF HISTORICAL SITES
(a) Preserves historical information for the coming generations.
(b) They are useful sources of information and to reconstruct history.
(c) They are the symbols of social cultural heritage to the society concern past human tools, rock, paints etc.
DISADVANTAGES OF HISTORICAL SITES
1. They help for practical historical learning e.g. through observation of past human tools, rock, paints.
2. Used to reveal past settlement patterns, levels of technology, economic development of political organization reached by the past societies.
3. Acts as centers of tourism.
4. They helps in transforming theoretical teaching of history to practical historical learning.
5. It acts as the resource centers to researchers.
6. It provides employment opportunities e.g.: guiders.
DISADVANTAGES OF HISTORICAL SITES
(i) It brings confusion to interpret the remains found in historical sites.
(ii) Many of historical sites are found on remote areas hence difficult for many people to visit them.
3. ARCHAEOLOGY:
This refers to the scientific study of past human remain. It is the study of material remains of man’s past through scientific methods.
The one specializes in archeology is called ARCHAEOLOGIST.
Archaeology involves excavations (digging) of the remains of
man’s past historical sites and interpretation.
The famous archaeologist in East Africa was Dr. Louis Leaky with his wife Mary Leakey.
Archaeology involves the use of carbon 14 dating to determine plants and animal remains.
FUNCTIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGY.
(a) Gives important information about man through different stages.
(b) It is a useful method of revealing soil covered historical remains.
(c) It arouse curiosity of searching past man historical information.
ADVANTAGES OF ARCHAEOLOGY
(a) It helps people to know when and how people lived in a certain place.
(b) Past objects tell us about the life and culture of past people.
(c) It helps us to know and reveal the technology, pastoral, agricultural and commercial activities of the past man.
(d) Through excavation, we get knowledge of artifacts e.g. Pottery, building etc.
(e) It reveals religious beliefs of the past man.
(f) We can compliment other sources of information through archaeology e.g. History.
(g) We can know the past relationship between different people such as trading activities, migration, marriage, birth, death and political relation.
DISADVANTAGES OF ARCHAEOLOGY
·It consumes time because of excavation.
·It cannot reveal the past people’s language.
· It cannot give out the out reasons for historical events such as wars.
·It needs full experts and advanced technology.
· Poorly interpreted remains can bring false information.
- It cannot tell anything about the past social organization.
4. ARCHIVES:
These are places where collection of public and private documents and old record are preserved.
These documents includes personal letters, early travelers and missionary records, traders writings, personal and government files, political parties documents, etc.
FUNCTIONS OF ARCHIVES
Archives preserve public and private records that have enduring value to the society.
The public makes the records in archives available for use.
However not all records can be viewed by everyone.
Archives collect records of enduring value from various places. For example, the nation archives have records from different regions of the country.
The archives staff maintains registers of the record in the archives.
Archives have facilities for restoring damaged documents of enduring value.
Archives have facilities for restoring damaged documents of enduring value.
The historical information in the archives ensures continuity. For example, company policies from previous years can still guide the employee today.
ADVANTAGES OF ARCHIVES
Easy to identify ideas and literacy level of the past man.
It is easy to identify the exact date of historical event.
It used to store historical information.
Easy to get historical information from different places and different people
DISADVANTAGES OF ARCHIVES
It may lead false information, if author is biased.
Illiterate people cannot get historical information.
It is not easy to get information of society whose information is not documented.
It is difficult to get remote information from archives.
It is non renewable once disrupted either by wind or o
5. MUSEUMS:
These are places or buildings where information and objects are preserved it involves all terms, which shows culture, political economic and technological development from the past to thepresent.
Objects can be early coins, clothes, and mineral cowries, religious and ceremonial symbols.
Museum can be national, Regional, District and village. e.g. National Museums in Dar es Salaam, Bagamoyo, Butiama, Kalenga Iringa.
FUNCTIONS OF MUSEUMS
Preserve historical documents and objects.
Shows concrete remains of objects.
It is the place for tourist and study tour.
It is the center for cultural and national identity.
ADVANTAGES OF MUSEUMS
It preserves objects, which are used as the teaching aids.
Museum preserves culture and national identity.
It used by researcher (source of information)
It acts as tourist center.
People learn about technological development.
Enable learners to arouse creativity.
DISADVANTAGES OF MUSEUMS.
It needs knowledgeable people.
It is possible to distort information through biases by the museum attendant.
Poor preservation of the past items e.g. coins, pieces of cloth, slaves chain can distort information.
It needs extensive care to maintain its beauty or origin.
6. WRITTEN RECORDS:
Are the documents, which comprise written historical information. This
includes books, letters, maps, magazines, journal, newspaper, minutes of meetings and conferences.
Written records can be found in libraries, schools, colleges, universities, internet cafes, offices etc.
FUNCTIONS OF WRITTEN RECORDS
Written records provide pictures of society.
These records reflect public opinion at the time of writing. For example, the letter to the editor in newspaper expresses the readers’ feelings on current issues.
Written records serve as stores of a large variety of information, including discoveries, government policies, statements, religious beliefs, fashion, speeches and agreement.
In-depth reports of daily events are kept as written records. For example in a diary, newspaper or biography
ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN RECORDS.
· It is easy to get information.
·Easy to make references.
·It is helpful in doing researches.
·They can be kept for long time.
DISADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN RECORDS.
It can give false information if they are biased by the author.
It is difficult to read everything from written records.
They are subject to be badly written.
Illiterate people cannot get information.
7. LINGUISTICS:
Is scientific study and analysis of language. It includes study of sound, structure, information and relationship between various language groups.
ADVANTAGES OF LINGUISTICS
It helps to get information from various sources.
Enables to discover links between different people.
It helps to determine dates f historical event e.g. “Aluta continua” (Period of struggle for independence in Mozambique).
LIMITATIONS OF LINGUISTICS.
It consumes time and finance learning a particular language.
Through translation, one can commit some important work.
The present language may be corrupted.
8. ANTHROPOLOGY:
Is the study of the society’s cultural systems, beliefs, ideas etc. The study can give important information about movements, settlements and production activities of the past.
DATING HISTORICAL EVENTS.
Historians usually divide time into several categories, namely
· Day – is a duration of twenty four hours (24hrs).
· A week – is a duration of seven days (7days).
· Month – is the duration of four weeks (4 weeks).
· A year – is a duration of twelve months (12 moths).
· A decade – is a duration of ten years (10 yrs).
- A century – is the duration of one hundred years (100 yrs).
· A millennium – is the duration of thousand years (1000 yrs).
· A generation – is the average differences on ages between a child and his/her parent.
· Age – is the period based on ma’s economic activities and type of tools used e.g. stone age, iron age, industrial age, science and technology age, etc.
· A period – is determined by one continuous event lasting for number of years E.g. Period of slave trade in East Africa
Period of long distance trade
Period of colonial rule in Africa
Some points has chosen in order to divide time
· Year ZERO – present the year when Jesus Christ was born
It is known as Anno Domino (A.D) meaning the year of the Lord
· All years before zero are called (B.C) meaning (Before Christ).
HOW TO DETERMINE DATES
Dates are instrument in a science of history; these historians divided dates into four ways;
1. Recalling events: - here important events are recalled/remembered e.g. drought, farming, floods, birth, eruption of diseases etc.
2. by studying languages: - Some names helps people to remember dates of some events. E.g., Word “Karafuu” started when Cloves were introduced in Zanzibar.
3. Carbon 14 is a scientific method of determining dates. It used in the finding dates for remains of animals or plants, which died beyond 5000 years ago. Carbon 14 is a gas found in carbon dioxide, which exists in the atmosphere. It absorbed by plant and other living organisms. When died carbon 14 that starts to decay at a fixed rate from the time of death.
4. Orders of events: ways showing order of events, period and ages, among them are-
· Time graph
· Time chart.
· Time line.
· Family tree
TOPIC 2:
EVOLUTION OF MAN, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT.
Evolution of Man Is the gradual changes development of plants and animals from a simple form to a - more complex form. This change leads to existence of plants and animals that are different from the - original plants and animals.
THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION OF MAN.
The theory of evolution tries to explain the origin of man by describing the changes that our ancestors underwent until they were like modern man.
There are two theories, which attempt to explain the origin of man.
1st THEORY OF CREATION. This theory explains that there is super natural power that creates everything. This super natural power is God. Refer from the Holy Bible and Qur'an e.g. from Biblical knowledge (Genesis chapter 1:26) it says that: - God created man by using soil; at first, they created a man and then later a woman. These two creatures established their relationship and this marked the beginning of human family.
2nd THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION OF MAN: an English man known as Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) proposed the theory of evolution of man.
The theory says that: - man’s species has been changing gradually from lower stage to better stage due to environment. Changing goes hand in hand with improvement of methods of obtaining food, cloth and shelter.
The gradual change of man is called evolution. The first man belongs to the family of primates that included Ape, Gorilla, Monkey and Chimpanzee. These animals lived in the forest walking on four limbs and their bodies covered with hair. Because of environmental changes and diminishing of forests, they
started to live in open grassland. Environment forced them to adopt new way of walking. The forelimbs instead of walking become special for tool making and using. Forelimbs become free from walking. The walking is known as Bi –pedalism.
STAGES OF MAN’S EVOLUTION.
1. PRIMATES (Ape, Gorilla, Monkey, Chimpanzee)
Characteristics.
- Their bodies were covered with lots of hair.
- They walked on four limbs
- They lived in dense forest.
- They had poorly mental abilities.
- They totally depended on nature e.g. ate raw food
2. AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFRICAN FAMILY. This stage started about 12million years ago (B.C) when primates changed to near man.
This stage is divided into two; Zinjanthropus and Homo habilis Zinjanthropus
In this stage:
1. Fore limbs were free from walking.
2. Hind limbs were used for standing and body balance.
3. Man started to design, make and use tools.
4. Man becomes skillful.
Homo habilis
- It lived between 1,500,000 and 750,000 BC.
- Homohabilis become more skillful man, because was systematic tools maker.
- Homohabilis believed to be the direct ancestor of modern man.
- He had bigger brain and he was more systematic toolmaker.
- The skull of those creatures was discovered at Olduvai Gorge and in Eastern and Rudolf in Kenya.
3. HOMO ERECTUS.
During this stage, man was fully moving upright. He becomes more skillful tools maker than Homo habilis. Its fossils have been dug up in Olorgesaille and near Lake Turkana in the Kenya, Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.
4. HOMO SAPIENS
its characteristics
He is a true man of today
Has a large brain in size
Has less thick jaws
He was highly skillful man
He made tools by using stones and bones.
NB: Archaeologist Dr. Leakey in Olduvai Gorge has supported the theory of evolution in 1959 Basic characteristics of human evolution.
(i) Development of man’s ability to design make and use tools.
(ii) Ability of man to walk on two limbs. (Bi-pedalism)
(iii) Ability of man to think.
(iv) Ability of man to domesticate plants and animals.
5. HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS. Homo sapiens is a modern man. Homo sapiens are believed to have evolved into Homo sapiens sapiens about 50,000 years ago. This man has a large brain and great intelligence.
DEVELOPMENT OF STONE AGE.
Stone Age: This is historical period in which man made and used stone tools. Is a period based on man's economic activities and type of the tools used. e.g., Stone Age, Iron Age, Science technology age etc.
Stone Age is divided into three ages;
(a) Early or Old Stone Age.
(b) Middle Stone Age
(c) (c) Late or new Stone Age.
THE EARLY OR OLD STONE AGE:
This is the first period of Stone Age. It existed between 1,750,000 B.C and 750,000 B.C.
Zinjanthropus was the only man existed in this period. The early stone tools were pebbles and chopping.
Man used these tools for killing and skinning animal flesh, digging up roots, cutting tree branches, and for defense. Man obtained his food by hunting and gathering. In this period, man had low ability to control his environment.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY OR OLD STONE AGE.
In East Africa Stone Age sites are found at Olorgasaille, Nsongezi and Olduvai.
1. Man lived primitive life depending on nature.
2. Man made and used crude (poor) tools.
3. Man lived by hunting and gathering.
4. Man ate raw food i.e. meat
5. Man walked up right.
6. Man lived in caves.
7. Man did not wear clothes.
THE MIDDLE STONE AGE.
This stage covered the period between 750,000BC to 50,000 BC.
This period man improved his stone tools. Tools were -smaller, sharper and easier to handle. Tools used during this period were spear, Arrows, Needles, Stone picks, Knives etc. These tools were used for; digging up roots, killing and skinning animals, cuttings & chopping.
THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE. Man who was scratching pieces of wood using his hands discovered fire.The more he continued scratching, the pieces of wood got heat the smoke come out, the scratch caused friction of scratched wood and led to emission of fire.
IMPORTANCE/EFFECTS OF FIRE TO MAN DURING THE MIDDLE STONE AGE.
The following were the effects resulted after the discovery of fire during the Middle Stone Age
Man started to eat roasted food i.e. meat
Man started to live in cold areas.
Man used fire to clean bushes
Man used fire to provide light at night.
Fire used to kill small animals e.g. rabbit
With fireman increased working hours.
Man use fire to attract prey.
Man used fire for defense from dangerous animals like lion.
THE LATE STONE AGE (NEW STONE AGE).
In East Africa, late Stone Age started from around 50,000 BC to the first millennium AD. In this stage, man used better tools compared to the
previous stone ages. Tools become sharper and smaller.
Tools were stone exes, blades, spears, arrows, etc. Man started permanent settlement. The tools were still largely made of stone but they were far better than those of earlier periods were.
This period marked the beginning of settled communities. In areas such as Kondoa Irangi, paintings and drawings in the carves proved this fact. The paintings and drawings show the shape of tools used and animal hunted.
Characteristics of the late stone age.
1. Man used better tools compare to the previous ages.
2. Man started to domesticated plant and animal.
3. Man became food producer.
4. Increase of population.
5. It was beginning of settled communities and villages.
6. This period marked to be primarily on division of labor.
Example: women become child bearers and cares while man for protecting the families and hunting Informal education started in this period.
THE IRON AGE.
Iron Age is believed to have started during the 1st millennium A.D. This was the period when manmade and used Iron tools. The discovery and use of iron improved man’s standard of living. Iron tools were discovered about 3000 years ago.
The first people to make and use iron tools in Africa were the people of Ethiopia and Egypt. Iron skills and knowledge were not uniform or the same in Africa.
Famous iron Sites
The first important towns for iron smelting were Meroe in Sudan, Axum in Ethiopia, and Nok area in West Africa. In East Africa, it is believed that man started to use iron from the first millennium A.D
e.g. Iron discovered earlier in Engaruka, Uvinza, Karagwe, Ugweno and Western shores of Lake Victoria.
Iron tools included iron spears, arrows, Axes, Hoes etc also, Iron technology helped early African societies to produce and use iron tools as well as to produce better weapons for defense.
THE RESULT/EFFECTS/ IMPACTS OF USING IRON TOOLS
The discovery of iron tools in East Africa led to the following effects;
It led to increase in food production. Man could now clear his areas for cultivation.
Increase in population due to more food.
There was emergence of specialization i.e. Iron workers (black smiths) and food producers.
It led to the emergence of complex villages / development of political organization as kingdom and states.
Tools were highly improved and more efficient,
It led to the improvement of security due to better weapons like arrows, spears and pangas
It resulted to the development of trading activities due to surplus production
TOPIC THREE
DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT
HANDCRAFT INDUSTRIES AND MINING IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.
Handcraft industries: Man used hands and skills to produce tools and weapons of these industries.
Industries-Is the place where raw materials are processed into finished goods e.g. cotton-cloth Specialized handcraft industries in Africa.
Salt making industries; iron working; copper mining; gold mining; pottery making; spinning and weaving industries; bark –cloth industries; canoe making industries.
1. Salt making industries: These are industries, which engaged in production of soil in pre-colonial Africa.
Methods of obtaining salt.
Obtaining salt from different reeds: Reeds were collected, dried and burned, the ashes would be filtered while the ashes remain liquid would be evaporated and residue would be used as salt.
Places: - Near Lake Victoria, Kyoga, and Albert, among Buganda and Bahaya tribes and among Mang’anja people near shores of Lake Nyasa.
Obtaining salt by boiling and evaporating method. Sea or ocean water put into pans and left to evaporate, the salt crystals would be collected and used as salt.
Places: around coastal areas.
Obtaining salt by mining under neath rocks. Places: At Taghaza, Bilma around Lake Chad in western Sudan. Near lake Bangwela and river Luapala in central Africa.
Obtaining salt using water by fire. Spring water containing salt was boiled and finally salt was obtained.
Places with salt; in uvinza salt spring along river malagarasi in central Africa.
TRADE IN THE PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA:
Trade is the process of buying and selling of goods and services between people. There was need to trade in order to get all things needed by the communities. Trade tends to develop in any society where there is surplus production.
LOCAL TRADE. Refers to the kind of trade, which is conducted within the same geographical area. In local trade, goods are exchanged between people living in the same geographical area, such as a town or village.
Local trade was not for profit making but just to obtain essential goods. i.e. pastoral communities like the Maasai needed vegetables and grains from cultivators like the Nyakyusa and the Chaga.
Impacts of local trade.
1. Local trade united people within the same area.
2. Communities obtained goods such as tools, weapons, foodstuffs and medical herbs.
3. Transport routes were improved.
4. Some important market centers emerged along the market routes.
5. Local trade encouraged communities to expand production.
REGIONAL TRADE.
Regional trade refers to trade conducted from one region to another (Trade
conducted between two different geographical regions). Regional trade involved a wider variety of goods compared to local trade. It was not for profit making. For example, regional trade was Trans Sahara trade,
Long distance trade of East Africa and Central Africa. Regional trade in the pre-colonial Africa took place in 19th century.
THE KAMBA. The Kamba were leading the long distance trade through northern route in the 19th century. They Kamba caravan brought ivory, guns, hides and beeswax from the interior. From the Coast they obtained cloth, salt, copper, cowrie’s shells and jewellery.
THE YAO. The Yao traders got beads and cloth from Kilwa. They also captured and sold slaves from neighboring communities, Yao chiefs such as Mpanda, Mataka, Machemba and Mtalika dominated the Southern route during the long distance trade.
THE NYAMWEZI. The Nyamwezi dominated the central route conducted trade between the interior of Tanganyika and the coast. The Nyamwezi sold slaves and ivory, hide rhinoceros horn..
Impacts/ effects of regional trade.
Positive consequences/impacts.
Some traders became very rich. e.g. Mirambo and Isike.
The communities were able to obtain new commodities e.g. guns, clothes, beads, ivory, etc.
The rise of trade centers such as Saadans, Pangani, Bagamoyo, Tabora, Ujiji, Voi, and Taveta.
The rise of trade routes.
The rise of powerful Empires/Kingdoms such as Nyamwezi.
New food crops such as maize, rice and cassava were introduced.
Spread of Islam by the Arabs to the interior Tabora and Ujiji.
Negative impacts.
The rise of inter-tribal wars in Oder to get slaves.
Many elephants were killed, as there was high demand of Ivory.
It led to depopulation and under development in some areas.
Slave raids caused insecurity and loss of innocent lives.
Foreigners used trade routes to reach to the interior.
Exploitation of African wealth by Europeans and Asians.
Decline of local industries in Africa.
LONG DISTANCE TRADE.
Long distance trade was the trade carried out long distance as people/traders had to move for long distance going on exchanging goods with other societies and the major aim was to get profit for example a salt traders was exchanged salt foe hoes not because he wanted to use hoes but he wanted re sell them at a profit later.
TRANS SAHARAN TRADE:
Trans Sahara trade was the trade conducted across the Sahara desert. It
involved the people of Northern Africa and the people of Western Sudan.
This trade started long time ago between 3000BC to 2000BC. It became important in the 1st century AD after the people of West Africa to
discover the use of camel and led to formation of many trade routes. The Trans Saharan trade was known as dumb trade because there was no common language, which was used. People who involved in the trade; West Africa; North Africa and Savannah Region.
MOVEMENT OF TRADERS.
People (traders) organized themselves in groups known as CARAVANS.
Goods involved in the trade Kola nuts, gold, salt, foodstuffs, Ivory, clothes, gold, bee-wax, slaves and ostrich feathers goods from West. In addition, from North Africa salt and animal skin.
Goods from Europe and Asia were cotton and silk cloth, swords, guns, metal pans, horses and Arabic books.
Trade routes:
(a) Western route- From Sijilmasa, Fez in Morocco passed through Taghaza, Taodeni, Walata, Audaghost, and Kumbi Saleh to Timbuktu.
(b) Central route- This passed Tunis, Ghat, Ghamese, Kano, GAO and Hausa land.
(c) Eastern route- This began in Tripoli, Marzul and Bilma.
FACTORS THAT LED TO THE GROWTH OF THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE.
The following are some of the factors that contributed to the growth of the Trans Saharan trade:
Stability of the communities: Both North African and Western Sudan zone were politically stable.
For example, leaders like Sundiata Keita and Mansa Musa collected taxes and established guides on trade routes. This enabled the people to conduct trade without fear. Up to the end of the 15th century AD, many traders were motivated to come to Western Sudan for trade.
Western Sudan provided goods needed by traders from Europe. These goods included gold, ivory and slaves. Through trading Western Sudan exchanged her own commodities with goods from Western Europe and Asia. In turn, she got clothes, guns and other commodities. The surplus production in Western Sudan was adequate to sustain demand for products such as kolanuts and gold, hides, ivory slaves, whereas Taghaza produced enough salt to meet the needs in Western Sudan. The high production capacity in the region enhanced the growth of the Trans Saharan trade.
Honesty: The Berbers of North Africa and the African traders of Western Africa trusted each other. Traders brought in commodities without fear of theft and robbery, enabling the trade to flourish.
The use of camels for transport suited the desert conditions and facilitated the development of the Trans-Saharan trade. These animals could not only carry more commodities than horses and human porters, but also endured desert conditions. Camels can survive without water for a longtime. This convenient means of transport strengthened the development of the Trans-Saharan trade.
Geographical location of the region: The location and climate favored the production of kola nuts and other foodstuffs that were needed in the community, especially the forest region to the south. The region of Western Sudan had no impassable forests because many areas were covered by short grassland. This enabled traders to cross the desert without fear or any difficulty.
The invention of a medium of exchange contributed to the growth of the Trans Saharan trade. At the beginning, only the silent barter system of trade was practiced. Later on, cowrie shells were introduced as a convenient medium of exchange. This in turn facilitated the development of the Trans-Saharan trade.
From the northern part, the Berbers provided capital to many traders who used to cross the Sahara desert.
Removal of language barrier: This was attained after Arabic language became the trader’s medium of communication. This in turn facilitated the trade by making communication between the traders easy.
Absence of competition for trading activities in the region: There were no regular ships that visited the coast of West Africa. As a result, what was produced from the forest zone was peacefully transported to North Africa through the Saharan desert.
Scarcity of commodities like gold and salt.
Introduction of horses, which were used in conquest and expansion.
EFFECTS OF THE TRANS SAHARAN TRADE IN AFRICA.
1. It led to the growth of empires like Ghana, Mali etc
2. It increased development of Agriculture.
3. It led to the introduction of Arabic Islamic religion cultures.
4. Formation of mixed races example half cast
5. Growth of town and cities e.g. Jenne, Timbuktu, GAO and Walata.
THE DECLINE OF THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE.
By the second half of the nineteenth century, the volume of Trans-Saharan trade started to decline. A number of obstacles or problems have been identified to explain the decline. These are:-
Strong desert winds: The traders could not withstand the hazards of sand storms. Many abandoned the trade as a result.
Traders faced the danger of getting lost in the desert because the routes were not clear. Once traders got lost, they would wander in the desert for a long time and eventually die of thirst and starvation.
Desert robbers who made their living by stealing from trade caravans subjected traders to attacks. In the process, traders lost their lives and goods. This discouraged traders from participating effectively in the trade.
The extreme climatic conditions were unfavorable to traders. The heat and high temperatures during the day and every low temperature at night due to the absence of cloud cover discouraged traders.
Traders faced the danger of highly poisonous desert creatures whose bites could result in death. These included snakes and scorpions.
Traders faced language difficulties. This hampered communication during trade. As such, “silent trade” had to be used initially.
The development of the Trans-Atlantic rout across the Atlantic Ocean to Europe: commodities like ivory and slaves were transported quickly to the coast of West Africa from where they were transported to Europe. Thus, the trade routes shifted from the Saharan desert to the Atlantic. Instead of the direct route to the North, they went via the coast of West Africa.
Commodities obtained from Western Sudan such as salt and gold faced competition from similar goods from other America cheaply. As result, the volume of Trans-Saharan trade decreased because Western Sudan could no longer claim a monopoly in production of certain commodities like salt and
gold. In addition, gold from Zimbabwe via Sofala port by the Portuguese ended up in Europe.
The abolition of slave trade contributed to the decline of the Trans-Saharan trade. Slaves were the main item of trade. When slave trade was abolished, trade started to decline.
Shortage of water also led to the decline in trade. The oases in the Saharan desert provided water seasonally but they sometimes dried up. This made it difficult for the traders to cross the Saharan desert.
Wars: The war in Morocco and the one between Christians and Muslims disrupted the smooth running of the trade. The Moroccan invasion of western Sudan in 1591 AD disturbed the growth of the trade by taking gold at Wangara.
Finally, the Trans-Saharan trade collapsed in the 16th century. From this period onwards, West Africa witnessed the expansion of European occupation on the coast of West Africa.
TOPIC 4:
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SYSTEM
Before the coming of colonialist Africans, they had their own social and political system of administration, African administration system was interrupted after the interaction with colonialist in 19th century. Therefore, in this topic we explain Development of social and political system of Africa.
THE CLAN ORGANIZATION.
Clan was the organization, which involved combination of several
related families with a common ancestor.
Clan organization combined with both the matrilineal and matrilineal societies.
In the patrineal societies clan heritage was based on the father,
in the matrilineal clan heritage was based on the mother examples of this society were Mweras, Kambas and Kikuyus whom others are patrineals.
The main economic activity in the clan organization was agriculture.
Clan is controlled or ruled by the clan’s head.
More examples of matrilineal societies; The Ngindo, Zaramo,
Makua and Matumbi.
DUTIES OR FUNCTIONS OF THE CLAN HEAD
1. To distribute land to the communities or clan members.
2. To preserve traditions and customs of the clan.
3. To preserve land belonging to the clan.
4. To settle disputes and quarrels.
5. To find wives for boys and husbands for girls.
Types of clan organizations in agricultural societies. There are two types of clan organizations in agricultural societies;
Matrilineal and Matrilineal.
Matrilineal clan organization: This is a society where by the husband moved to the wife’s family and children of the new family belonged to the mother’s (wife’s clan). As a result, clan heritage was based on the mother’s clan. Uncles have to make all the important decisions concerning the children and the nephews of their sisters. Matrilineal age in Africa was practiced among the Makonde, Makua, Mwera, the Yao of Tanzania, and the Kamba of Kenya.
Matrilineal clan organization societies: This is the system of organization in which the clan heritage was based on the father’s line and all children bared the name of the father. The husband had to pay substantial bride price in different forms such as cattle, goats, etc in order to get the wife, the bride price could be stored as wealth, in this system all the children of the new family belonged to the father’s clan.
By the 18th and 19th century clan system changed to chief train, ship after several came to be controlled under one leader.
AGE SET ORGANIZATION.
This kind of socio-political organization based on age and sex. In order
for one to fit in the society one was required to fulfill certain obligations. Often the main productive activity was based on the harsh environments. Such as arid grass land and semi arid, in these areas poor soil could not support agriculture economy but vegetation could be used for animal husbandry.
Age set organization was the determinant form of organization in pastoral societies.
The best examples of these societies were the Maasai, Nyakyusa of East Africa, Hausa in West Africa and the Khoi Khoi of South Africa.
The division of responsibilities and duties was based on age and sex and was usually done during intuition ceremonies. Youth were taught special responsibilities.
Age set covered a specific group of years for example;
a) Children group aged 0-8years were regarded as non-producers group. They were not directly involved in production.
b) Youth group 8-18 years their main responsibility was to graze animals, trading young animals and milking cattle they were assisted by women.
c) Moran group (people between youth and adults aged between 35yers) and above these were soldiers of the society and
the main responsibilities of the Moran were as follows;
i. To protect the whole society as trained soldiers.
ii. To protect livestock against dangerous animals and raiders
iii. To increase the number of animals through raiding their neighbors
iv. To travel with their herds in search for water and pastures.
d) Laibons this is the group of elders aged 40years and above it consisted of elders who were divided in groups namely; junior elders and senior elders.
Responsibilities of elders:
- To control livestock and all the properties on behalf of their communities.
- To enable norms and ethics to govern the society.
- They were top overseers of all the spiritual and political matters of the community.
- They were responsible for counseling other members of the society.
- To settle disputes among the society members.
- They were regarded as retired producers of the society but their ideas and skills were highly appreciated.
STATE ORGANIZATION.
State is a community occupying a certain given territory and living under full control of its government and therefore it is independent form of external control.
State in East Africa mostly started to emerge in the 18th century AD due to the rapid spread of agricultural communities and improvement of science and technology.
Clan which possessed a deliquate labor and land resources or had better skills of iron use became dominant clan and leader of the community or village; they were respected and obeyed by other clan members. Those who disagreed with them migrated to other lands. In this way leader of the dominant clan assumed political and spiritual or ritual functions. Kings and queens were state leaders. Village heads who were leaders of many clans in villages were under state of kings or queens also had their court to deal
with judicial matters.
GENERAL FACTORS FOR STATE FORMATION.
a) Conquest- some powerful states conquered the weaker societies and therefore making them strong and expand. For example, Buganda conquered Bunyoro in the interlacustrine regions.
b) Trade-trade such as the Long distance trade enabled the society concerned to become strong and powerful after acquiring commodities of different types including weapons which were used for strengthening their societies. Buganda got guns from the East Coast to defend and expand. The empire of the Mali, Ghana and Songhai got metal and hoes from North Africa to strengthen their military
c) Good climate and fertile soils (soil fertility) it led to the increase of food and assurance of feeding which led to population increase, a factor that was very important for the state formation. For instance heavy rainfall and fertile soil enabled production of more food and surplus in Buganda.
d) Good leadership- some African rulers were strong and ambitious to expand their empire so they organized their people and got support from them for example: Kabanga of Buganda.
e) Availability of iron- iron promoted agricultural products and was used for making war weapons, which in turn became most important for conquering other states.
f) Migration-this was a complimentary factor it happened that some people migrated to other states and brought with them new technology and skills which were used to expand and strengthen the new societies concerned.
g) Size of the kingdom- kingdoms that were small such as Buganda and Ghana were easier to organize, to administer effectively and to defend unlike the larger kingdoms like the Bunyoro; the effective control was impossible.
THE WESTERN SUDANIC STATES.
The early states in western Sudan were established in the region between the Sahara desert and the forest region of the South.
The most notable states are/were Ghana, Mali, Songhai and Karnem Bornu.
GENERAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF WESTERN SUDANIC STATES.
1. Good geographical location
2. Iron technology
3. The growth of population
4. Development of local industries
5. Taxation
6. Trans - Saharan Trade
7. Availability of valuable goods e.g. Gold
8. Good centralized government
9. Capable leaders
10. Strong Army
GHANA EMPIRE.
During its rise, Ghana had two main towns, one occupied by Muslims and the other by Pagans. The rulers and the people were Soninke speaking group. The word Ghana as the King title emerged in 5th AD. The capital center of administration was Kumbisalehe.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE GHANA EMPIRE
1. Agricultural activities
2. Availability of valuable goods e. g gold
3. Trans – Saharan trade in gold and salt
4. Good leadership and efficient system of government.
5. Common language.
FACTORS FOR THE DECLINE OF GHANA EMPIRE
1. Almoravids‘ constant attacks
2. Disunity among people
3. Jihad wars
4. Lack of stable system of royal successions.
5. The rise of rural kingdoms e.g. Mali.
MALI EMPIRE.
Early in the 3rd C Ghana fell apart as a result of the war between Samangwa the king of Ghana and Prince Sundiata Keita the king of Kangaba. Ghana was defeated and Ghana fell Under Sundiata’s rule. Sundiata formed a large kingdom known as Mali the capital was Niami and the title of the rulers was Mansa.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE MALI EMPIRE.
1. The fall of Ghana empire
2. Control of gold fields of Bure
3. Strong army
4. Agricultural activities
5. Trans – Saharan trade
6. Strong leadership of Sundiata Keita and later Mansa Kan Kan Musa
7. Islamic faith which promoted libraries and Islamic universities
8. Political system in Mali.
DECLINE OF THE MALI EMPIRE.
1. Weak leadership after the death of Mansa Mahmud IV
2. Empire became too large to control
3. Lack of unity and the empire was divided into three spheres of influence and they fought against each other.
4. Attacks by Tuaregs
5. Civil wars
6. The rise of Songhai empire.
SONGHAI EMPIRE.
In the late 15th Century the Songhai Empire originally the Gao, conquered
neighboring states under the leadership of Sunni Ali and formed the large empire of Songhai. Gao became its capital earlier on around the 11th C and remained the capital under the empire. Its famous leaders were Sunni Ali, Askia Mohamed and Askia Daud.
FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF SONGHAI EMPIRE.
1. Agricultural activities
2. Strong army
3. Trans – Sahara trade
4. Good administration
5. Taxation
6. Islamic faith.
DECLINE OF SONGHAI EMPIRE
1. Weak leadership after the death of Askia Daud
2. The Moroccan invasion
3. The empire was too large to control
4. Religious hostility between Islamic and traditional beliefs
5. The shift in orientation of trade towards the Atlantic following the introduction of the TransAtlantic Slave Trade.
FOREST STATES
THE BENIN EMPIRE. Benin Empire was a very small state with the Edo speaking people.
The highest authority at the time where chiefs known as Ogiso which meant the ‘Kings of the
Sky’ and the administrative centre was Ubinu. Between 1388 – 1431, there was a series of civil
wars, which badly divided the Edo. After the death of the last Ogiso, his son Prince Ekaladerhan
left for exile and established himself in Ile-Ife, so when the Edo people requested his return, he
sent his son instead, Prince Oranmiyan who took up the throne.
EXPANSION INTO CITY-STATE EMPIRE
By 15th C, the empire expanded into a city-state under the leadership of Oba Ewuare the Great
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE
1. Some of capable rulers the greatest of those was Aware
2. Good centralized system of government
3. Trade
4. Unity
5. Development of Handicraft Industry
DECLINE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE.
Introduction of Slave trade
Trans- Atlantic trade
Firearms that were introduced through the European trade caused tribal wars that led to the final decline of the Benin Empire.
THE EMPIRE OF OYO.
Oyo Empire began in the late 14th C or early 15th C likely 1388 –
1431. The people of Oyo were Oranmiyan, their capital was Oyo-Ile and the King of Oyo was called Alafin. The Bashoran was the leader of the army.
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE OYO EMPIRE
1. It had organized political system headed by a number of great Alafins
2. Strong organized army
3. Agricultural activities
4. Development of local industries
5. Slave trade
6. Dahomey tributary
DECLINE OF THE OYO EMPIRE.
1. Conflict between Alafin and Basharon
2. Conquest from the Fulani and Dahomey
3. Civil wars
4. Disunity
DAHOMEY EMPIRE.
Dahomey rose after the decline of Oyo in the 19thC. It was founded by the Fon people. It had good leaders such as King Agaja and Houegbadja who built the Royal Palaces of Abomey.
THE RISE OF THE DAHOMEY EMPIRE IN THE 18th C
1. Growth of centralized and powerful monarchy
2. Boyul succession system was effective
3. Strong army
4. Good leadership of King Gezo and later Aguja
5. Control of Slave trade
DECLINE OF DAHOMEY.
Dahomey declined after the arrival of the French.
ASANTE EMPIRE.
Asante or Ashanti Empire was founded as a result of the emergence of
several cities in the region of Kumasi. The people of Asante were Akan ruled by the Oyuko clan. The King was Obiri Yeboa who was Osei Tutu. The capital city of Asante or Ashanti was Kumasi. The symbol of Asante union was a Golden stool. The ruler of Asante was known as Asantehene.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF ASANTE
1. Agricultural activities
2. Development of local industries
3. Some of its capable rulers e.g. Osei Tutu
4. Well organized political system
5. Trade.
DECLINE - The state declined after the arrival of Europeans.
CENTRALIZED STATES OF CENTRAL AFRICA
Example: Kongo empire, it was founded in the 14th C. The head of the kingdom took the title of Manikongo or Mwekongo means lord of Kongo. The capital was Mbaza, which the Portuguese later baptized Sutrador.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF KONGO EMPIRE.
1. Technological development e.g. Iron technology
2. Trade
3. Taxation
4. Development of local industries
5. Emergence of traditional leaders with a strong belief in spiritual and magic power.
DECLINE OF THE CONGO EMPIRE
The arrival of the Portuguese
Slave trade
Weak leadership after Manikongo Mingo Mkuwa who acquired up an Embassy in Portugal. His son Mzingo Mbemba was baptized as Dan Alfonce. He was a puppet of the Portuguese and caused civil war in Kongo.
MWENEMUTAPA KINGDOM.
This Kingdom was created under the leadership of Mutola. Mutola conquered Tongu and Torura of the Zambezi valley. He acquired the title of Mwenemutapa, which means ‘Master of the conquered lands’. He was a political, military and religious leader. Mutola died in 1450 and his son Matope inherited, after Matope’s death in 1480 Changamire took over in 1490.
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF MWENEMUTAPA.
1. Agricultural activities
2. Good leadership of Mutola
3. Availability of valuable goods e.g. copper, iron and gold
4. They controlled trade routes
5. Trading centers.
REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF MWENEMUTAPA.
1. The arrival of Portuguese who monopolized the gold trade
2. The kingdom became divided into two parts Mutapa and Ruzwi
3. Rebellion from local people After the death of Matope, his son Nyahuma took over. He was younger than the other Chief so that Chief rebelled and caused civil war.
THE LUBA STATE.
This state is found between the tributaries of river Kongo. The Songiye people migrated from Katanga led by a leader from the Kangolo clan. The united Kaniok and from Luba kingdom, Ilungambila married into the Kangolo clan. This intermarriage gave the rise of Luba lineage of Kalala Ilunga, the founder of Munza as capital of Luba.
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE LUBA STATE.
1. Centralized system of Administration where the kingdom had final say in wars and external trade
2. The development of trade
3. Agricultural Activities
4. The presence of iron technology.
THE LUNDA STATE.
The centre of the empire lay in the Valley of Nkala River. The Luba kings took the title of Mwanta. It began as a simple village and their first ruler was called Mwantagaand. Ilunga Tshibinda who came from Luba married a princess from the area and their son became the first paramount ruler of the Lunda State.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF LUNDA STATE
1. Iron technology
2. Development of local industries
3. Agriculture activities
4. Good leadership
5. Trade.
The empire declined after the arrival of Europeans.
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