TOPIC 1:
INTERACTION AMONG THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA
INTERACTION was the way in which people from a given community came into contact with another community.
or
INTERACTION was a state in which people from one community got into contact with one another.
The contacts among African people resulted from their various struggles to meet their daily requirementsa nd further social and economic development. Before colonialism, African communities had social ande conomic interactions.
A) SOCIAL INTERACTION:
Social interaction took place through migration, religion, war, music, medicine and marriage.
1. MIGRATION. East Africa belongs to four main language groups namely the Khoisan, the Cushites,the Nilotes and the Bantu. Historical evidences show that the earliest inhabitants of East Africa were of Khoisan origin. Their speech is described as had “click” sound. It was similar to the language of present day KhoiKhoi and San of South Africa. They were nomadic hunters and gathers. These early large groups interacted with the larger Cushites, Bantu and the Nilotes communities that began settling in East Africa from the first century A.D. The remnants of them include Sandawe and Hadzabe of Tanzania and the Okiek (Dorobo) of Kenya. The origin home kind of the Nilotes was in the Nile valley in Sudan. Some Bantu communities of East Africa included Nyamwezi, Sukuma, Chagga and Pare of Tanzania, kikuyu,Kamba. Luhya of Kenya and Buganda, Basoga and Banyoro of Uganda. Through interaction of one community practiced medicine interacted with another led to some changes such as introduction of iron technology in East Africa.
2. RELIGION. Religion played a crucial role in all African societies. Religious beliefs were takens eriously and affected every phase of life. There was a variety of religious activities in pre-colonial Africa. These included burial rites purifications, rituals naming of ceremonies and prayers to blesss oldiers before they went to war. Religious activities took place at different levels such as family level, clan level and community level e.g. The Bushmen of Congo held prayers before going to hunt, as they believe that God was the source of all food. Among the Asante people of West Africa, the king of Asante (Asantehene) based his right to office on the possession of the Royal or Golden stool, Asantehene was regarded as the chief priest. Natural cults also existed in many parts of Africa. Their main aim was top lease the spirits and legendary heroes e.g. the juju practiced in Western Africa the Shona held a cult called Mwani. The king of Shona (Mwanamtapa) was regarded as decline.
3. WARS. African communities engaged in war from time to time; they fought with various reasons such as to increase the number of the herds of livestock, to get fertile land for agriculture purposes and expansion of the kingdom e.g. Buganda conquered Buddu, Karagwe and Busoga to expand their kingdom by 1839. Egyptian army had established their base at Gondokora the area located around Southern Khartoum and by 1869, Egyptian had raided and destroyed the Lango and Ancholi religion in the modern day Uganda.
4. MUSIC AND DANCES. African music and dances brought people together; communities’ rites and ceremonies were accompanied by songs and dances. Every African society developed songs for work, Laborers sang while clearing fields, sowing and harvesting goods example of dances were Mdundiko among the Zaramo and Sindimba of Makonde. The Yomba of West Africa performed Orik music where you other songs praised or condemned certain characteristics including leadership and relation with neighbors. Dance were also performed for different purposes; some dance were open to everyone while others restricted to a certain secret society professional and artisans example Chagga men and women performed a dance called Rring during wedding ceremonies and Luguru led their dance called Gubi.
5. MEDICINE. Africans had medicine men and women who played important role both spiritually and medically. Those who practice medicine interacted with many members of the society as patient visited some of the well-known medicine men and women. Some medicine men and women were also political advisors and leaders example KinjekitileNgwale of Southern Tanzania most of the medicine were extracted from plant roots, barks and leaves e.g. The (name tree) Mwarobaini is mostly used by various medicine in Matebele.
6. MARRIAGE. Marriage occupies a position of great importance in African communities. Every member of the society jugs to build their own family. In Buganda, the Kabaka married from different clans in order to enhance political unity in the kingdom. Therefore, social interactions strengthened through marriage. At the same time, marriage led to emergence of new culture examples Swahili culture as the result of mixture of Bantu and Arab culture.
B) ECONOMIC INTERACTION
Africa communities also interacted due to economic factors such as crafts, trade, farming and pastoralism.
1. METAL WORKING. African communities used various kinds of metal to make tools, weapons,utensil and ornaments; some of the widely used metals were iron, Bronze, Gold, Copper and tin.
Archaeologists have discovered the remains of early in working beneath important religious shrine in the great lakes religion dating back over 2,000 years ago. Egyptians were the first people known to have used copper; Benin the Bronze casters had guild called IgunEronwon through making various metal tools people interacted due to the need of the commodities through interactions.
2. AGRICULTURE. Many Africans communities practiced agriculture and different types of interaction took place in the process. Apart from few communities such as the pastoral Maasai who never tilled land; other communities cultivated a variety of crops by using different farming methods, tools and crops were passed from one community to another. The Kwari who were purely pastoral community eventually became cultivators as the results they interacted with agricultural societies.
3. FISHING. Was an economic activity that was practiced by communities that lived near water bodies such as lakes, rivers and the seas. The Luo were and still are named fishermen in Pre-colonial East Africa the Ndengereko's fished in the river Rufiji while the Zaramo and other coastal people in the Indian Ocean, such fishing communities interacted with pastoral and agriculturalist so as to acquired animal product and agricultural commodities.
5. TRADE. Trade conducted in pre–colonial period was in barter system, the trade network was based on the need to access what a community did not produce; Example pastoralists exchanged their animals’ products for vegetable and grains. The limbo clans among the Luo specialized in occupation such as iron working and pottery. Between 8th– 16thC. AD community from the Sudanic belt engaged in trade with the communities from North Africa in the Trans – Sahara trade. Among the most important commodities of exchange were iron, gold, slaves and salts.
7. Emergence of classes: The interactions of people on Africa resulted into classes of rich and poor;
those who engaged in trade and agricultural activities became economically powerful than those who did
not engage in these activities.
THE COMING OF THE NGONI
Who were the Ngoni?
The Ngoni were Bantu-Nguni speaking people of Northern Zululand in South East Africa. They were originally Ndwandwe people under Zwide’s leadership. But when Shaka defeated Zwide, one part of his group in 1840s moved to East Africa into two groups of the Maseko and Tuta under Zwangendaba. They moved to Tanzania from Natal and Swaziland between 1840s due to “Mfecane” (time of trouble). They are currently settled in southwest Tanzania around Songea town.
MOVEMENT AND SETTLEMENT OF THE NGONI TO EAST AFRICA
They began their movement from South-East Africa in Northern Zulu land under the leadership of Zwangendaba in 1820. The Ngoni migration took place in the 19th century, and was the last major movement of Bantu people into East Africa
There were three groups of the Ngoni in East Africa as:-
(i) The Ngoni Tuta (ii) The Ngoni Ngwangara (iii) The Ngoni Maseko
They then crossed river Zambezi and river Limpopo and moved northwards in search of new land. Later in 1835, they divided into two groups. The one group under the leadership of Zwangendaba passed west of Lake Malawi and settled at Ufipa in 1840.
They were attracted to this area here because of the many herds of cattle around.
Zwangendaba led the biggest Ngoni group that entered in East Africa. They crossed the Zambezi River, moved through Malawi and Zambia until they reached the fipa plateau in around 1840’s. Zwangendaba died here in around 1845, and his followers splint up into five sections.
Three sections returned south to Zambia and Malawi while the other two such as Tuta and Gangsta sections remained at ufipa. Another group under the leadership of Induna Maputo (Maseko Ngoni) passed East of Lake Malawi and settled at Songea. When Zwangendaba died around 1845, the Ufipa Ngoni disagreed and split into five groups. Whereby the two groups remained in East Africa such as Tuta and Gwangara Ngoni, three groups moved out of East Africa that is to say, one group moved to Malawi and the two moved back to Zambia.
The Tuta Ngoni, the smallest group left in Ufipa, moved northwards fighting and crashing with the Hollywood near Lake Tanganyika, they disrupted the trade route between Tabora and Ujiji. In the1850s, they invaded the Nyamwezi capturing many and incorporating them in their ranks. They finally settled at Kahama South of Lake Victoria.
The Gwangara Ngoni under the leadership of Zulugama moved eastwards to Songea where they met the Maseko Ngoni. The two groups fought and the Maseko Ngoni were defeated and pushed out of Songea in 1860’s. Some Maseko moved back to Mozambique while others moved to Kilombero valley where they became knowns as the Mbunga. Another splinter group moved to Newala, Masasi and Tunduru. From Songea the Ngoni raided widely, finally settling southern Tanzania among the Bena, Hehe and Sangu. The Ngoni migration, which started around 1820s, had ended by the year 1860s.
CAUSES OF THE NGONI MIGRATIONS.
1. The mfecane war. This was the period of political instability and upheavals in South Africa, which led to the creation of political alliances among the displaced communities. It covered the period 1820 – 1834 which referred as war of crushing the people.
The war was narrated by the Ngoni as Ufuaru that meant the crushing and it was named as Difaune. As a result of this contradiction wide warrior divided into two groups one was Under shoshangane created Gaza Empire in Mozambique and Zwangendaba migrated northern wards through central Africa into present day Tanzania.- One group under MputaMaseko crossed Zambezi River and passed to Eastern side of Lake Malawi (Nyasa) finally settled in present day Songea district.
- Zwangedaba lead another groups reached and settled in Ufipa, and in the areas of Lake Nyasa in 1840. Hence Zwangedaba died in 1845.
- The Ndebele under mzirikazi found their settlement in present day Zimbabwe.
- The Kololo under Swebatwane migrated north and built Lozi kingdom a centralized state.
- The Ngoni people were predominantly agriculturalists and pastoralists; in order to protect their traditional way of life they decided to move northwards to central and Eastern Africa.
2. Boer expansion. Since the Ngoni’s economy depend much on land they wanted to expand southwards but due to presence of Boers it become difficult to them as they could not extend to west because Kens rub mountain or to East because of Indian Ocean hence they involved north wards.
3. Dictatorial rule of Shaka: The Zulu ruler was cruel in nature as he severely tortured people and those who failed to respond to his order were killed. Due to this, some people decided to seek refuge by migrating to other areas.
4. Overpopulation: This was caused by the fertility of soils and the reliability of rainfall between Drakensberg Mountains and the Indian Ocean.
5. Pastoralism reason: Some Ngoni people owned large herds of cattle and northwards looking for pasture and water for their animals. Therefore, they wanted to look for more fertile land for their cattle. They also experienced famine and drought that led to lack of food and water.
5. The influence of their leaders: Men like Zwangendaba, Maputo and Zulugama provided good leadership. This encouraged them to move onwards.
6. Overstocking: It could also have been due to overstocking of their animals as they were having spirit of cattle rustling, i.e. they had great desire to steal -other people’s cattle. For example, they went on driving away and confiscating other people’s cattle duri--ng their conquest and expansionist wars.
7. Increased knowledge of military tactics by the age regiments: These were powerful military forces and dedicated to professional war, which was their livelihood. They believed that they could have other territories through migration.
EFFECTS OF NGONI INVASION OR MIGRATION IN EAST AFRICA
POSITIVE EFFECTS
(i) Ngoni migration accelerated state formation in East Africa. The invasion gave rise to the formation of bigger political units for defensive purposes. Some societies re-organized themselves after the Ngoni invasion, forming strong armies reforms to strengthen their societies so as to resist their invasion. For example, Hehe and the Segu.
(ii) The Ngoni invasion led to the rise on outstanding leaders to prominence. These included Mirambo, NyunguyaMawe and Mkwawa, who used the Ngoni military tactics to build their states.
(iii) Introduction of new culture. However, there was spread of Ngoni customs and culture. They enriched the cultures of the people of Southern Tanzania, for example, people copied Ngoni traditionald ances and annual festivities.
(iv) It led to the introduction of new weapons e.g. assegai, cowhides and shields.
(v) It led intermarriages between the Ngoni and the natives. There were intermarriages between Ngoni and Nyamwezi, which subsequently led to improved relationships between the invaders and indigenous people and an increased population.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
(i) It led the loss of lives; this leading to depopulation in some areas where they got warriors this was especially in southern Tanzania. This was due to the killing of people in the expansionist wars e.g. the Mariti remnants of Rugarugas killed so many people.
(ii) It led to displacement of some tribes from their original homeland. That means the natives of the areas where Ngoni settled like the Yao were forced to settle in unfavorable areas.
(iii) It intensified slave trade in East Africa. Firstly, they themselves engaged in capturing people and selling as slaves. Again, people running away from the Ngoni invaders were once captured by Arab slave traders and sold off as slaves.
(iv) It led the destruction the of the east African people economy. In this case, the long distance trade and even agriculture was disrupted. For example, since people were running away from the invaders, they disrupted the normal farming, leading to famine. Then they grabbed the natives’ cattle. Furthermore, the caravan routes from Bagamoyo to Ujiji and through Tabora were insecure.
(v) It led the destruction of property and villages. Ngoni were moving in large groups destroying crops and other properties wherever they crossed. Villages that tried to resist were in most cases burnt down.
(vi) It led famine and hunger. There was widespread famine due to the scotched-earth policy of fighting circumstances, crop could neither be planted nor harvested, and people were forced to abandon farming.
(vii) It led to increased warfare among the African societies, including those areas that had been peaceful before.
The invention of agricultural tools encouraged man to cultivate bigger plots of land. Rapid increases in population also encouraged people to increase their farms so as to get more food, which could feed the growing population.
Some of African societies in the present days are still practicing communal mode of production. These include;
The Tindiga and Hadzabe of Singida and Lake Manyara and Central Tanzania.
The Dorobo (Okiek) of Maumau forest and Tesoin Uganda.
The Mbali found in the equatorial rain forest of the Congo DRC.
The bushman (san) of South Africa.
The KhoiKhoi of Kalahari Desert of Botswana
The Tur of Ghana.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNALISM
1. Absence of exploitation, there was no exploitation among the people in a community. All the ablebodied members of the society worked hard and shared what they produced.
2. Low level of production, the level of productive forces were low hence none or very little surplus was produced. The implements used in food procurement were crude and simple.
3. Dependence on nature, in communalism life was entirely dependent on nature therefore the environment dictated how man lived.
4. Communal ownership, the communal ownership of properties was a major characteristic of
communalism. The major means of production like land, tools and minerals were owned by the community.
5. Hunting and gathering, this was the main occupation in these communities; people were grouped together in collective groups known as hunting bands to facilitate this means of production. This later led to the development of stock raising and agriculture then it brought the division of labor.
6. Subsistence economy, due to low level of development of science and technology people produced enough food for their consumption.
7. Lack of specialization, Because of limitation of their science and technology (knowledge) these people learnt to perform all types of jobs. They worked together in marking roots, hunting and looking for food later on very simple division of labor based on gender occurred.
8. People in communal society treated each other equally, there was no standing army and ruling classes; even elders were not lords or rulers.
9. Learning by doing, people in communal societies shared knowledge. This was acquired through learning by doing, youth and children obtained knowledge and skills from their elders.
FACTORS FOR TRANSITION FROM PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM TO SLAVERY AND
FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION.
1. Neolithic revolution is the term for the first agricultural change describing the transition from nomadic, hunting and gathering to permanent settlement. Neolithic revolution brought socioeconomic changes such as establishment of permanent settlement, extension of division of labor based on age and sex, emergence of specialization, surplus production and spread of diseases due to permanent settlement.
2. Advanced in science and technology, this turning point gave improvement in agricultural production. The tools produced were sharper and stronger than the older ones. The improvement of tools led to the expansion of socioeconomic activities beyond hunting and gathering.
3. The reliable rainfall and fertile land, Allowed the expansion of agriculture especially the cultivation of permanent crops such as banana in Uganda.
4. Population growth, by either natural increase through giving birth or artificial means through immigration that was associated with transformation of the social organization and forming of strong empire.
5. Development of permanent settlement, even with nomadic pastoralist or shifting cultivation the area of operation became limited as the number of people increased due to the Neolithic revolution.
B: SLAVERY MODE OF PRODUCTION.
SLAVERY refers to a situation in a society where a person is owned by another purposely as an instrument of production.
SLAVERY MODE OF PRODUCTION was the second mode of production and the first exploitative mode of man by man. The emergence of surplus production created two different classes these were the rich and the poor. Under slavery systems slaves could not acquire wealthy and could not cultivate own land. Slavery in Africa existed in; Egypt where they constructed dams and pyramids. Chagga, Haya, Ganda, Hehe. Kerewe and Sambaa in East Africa interior.
Along the coast of East Africa, slaves were used in carrying loads buildings, cities, constructing dams and irrigation scheme. Slavery in Africa never existed as an institution except in Egypt Muslim communities and on the coast of East Africa.
FEATURES OF SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION
1. Existence of two classes, that is the slave masters who were exploiters and the slaves who were exploited group.
2. Private ownership of the major means of production. The slave masters owned slaves, cattle and all implements of production.
3. Low productive force, under the slave mode of production the productive forces were still low though more advanced compared to those used during communalism.
4. Existence of surplus production, there were extra products due to the use of advanced tools and improved skills of man to control his environment. The slave masters owned surplus production produced by slaves.
DEMERITS OF FEUDALISM
(i)The rich exploited labor force of the poor.
(ii) Only a few people in society owned land.
(iii) There was inequality in society between the rich and the poor.
(iv) The peasants were forced to undertake military duties and endanger their lives for their property owners.
(v) It encouraged inter-community warfare as property owners fought in order to increase their land andv assals.
BASIC ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the term social organization and production
2. Identify the types of social organizations and production that existed in Africa up to the19th century
3. What is communalism mode of production?
4. Identify the characteristics of communalism
5. Show examples of the societies that had communalism up to the 19th century
6. What is slavery and slave mode of production?
7. Explain the features of slavery in Africa.
8. Show areas where slavery was practiced in Africa.
9. What is feudalism as mode of production?
10. Explain the characteristics of feudalism.
11. Show societies in east Africa that had feudalism up to the 19th century.
12. Explain the feudal relation (forms of feudalism) that existed in the following areas. (i) Interlacustrine region of Lake Victoria (ii) Indian Ocean coast of East Africa.
TOPIC 3:
AFRICA AND EXTERNAL WORLD
EARLY CONTACTS WITH MIDDLE EAST AND FAR EAST.
Early contact was a period when East Africa began to interact with people from Middle East and Far East as early as 200 BC. These contacts were mostly developed through commercial activities. The early visitors were Persians, Syrians, Indians, Chinese, Lebanese, Burma and Arabians. The visitors managed to travel to the coast of East Africa through the use of Sea Vessels with the help of South- Eastern monsoon winds.
Trade contacts between East African coast and the Far and Middle East intensified between 8th and 10th Century when many traders from China, Indonesia, India, and Arab came to trade to African countries.
Such commercial contacts are evident from Archaeological findings such as China porcelains, coins, and foreigners tombs in areas like KilwaKisiwani and Old Bagamoyo. The Early contacts were facilitated through legitimate trade; the second phase of Contacts (from 10th century onwards) included slaves among the commodities taken from East African coast.
MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACTS BETWEEN AFRICA, MIDDLE AND FAR EAST
SOCIAL MOTIVES.
(i) Spreading of Islamic religion, Islam religion began in the Middle East in 7th AD from there it spread to many parts of Asia. In addition, Arabs wanted to spread their religion to new parts of the world including Africa.
(ii) Seeking refuge, some visitors who came to Africa experienced religion and political persecution in their countries so they came in search of peacefully place to settle.
(iii) Establishment of settlement, some visitors decided to live permanently in Africa especially alongthe coast and they built permanent stone houses in the Arabic style.
ECONOMIC MOTIVES.
(i) Commercial exploration, some of the early visitors came to explore Africa and assess its resources. They wanted to know the climatic conditions, mineral resources, wildlife and economic activities found on the African continent. They plan to exploit resources available.
(ii) Trade, many of the early visitors were interested in products from Africa to take back to their home countries.
EFFECTS OF THE EARLY CONTACTS BETWEEN AFRICA AND MIDDLE AND FAR EAST
A: POSITIVE SOCIAL EFFECTS
(i) The rise of coastal city States, these states included Mogadishu, Zanzibar, Mombasa, Kilwa and Sofala, they were once small unimportant coastal villages but they grew into cities due to settlement by foreigners.
(ii) Development of Swahili language, Swahili language and culture developed as a result of intermarriage between the people of East Africa Coast towns. Swahili language consists of roughly 65% of Bantu words, 30% of Arabic words and other few Indian words. It provided a common language for the African and Arabs on East Africa coast to use in trade.
(iii) Spread of Islam, Arabs and Persians who settled along the Coast of East Africa spread Islam along the coastal state of East Africa. It also extended into the interior. Arabs built Mosque wherever they settled. This was alongside with the introduction of Islamic laws in order to maintain justice and order and these laws were taken from the Muslim Holy book (Quran) and they were administered by the Kadhi (Judge).
(iv) New Architectures designs, the Coastal city-states adopted new style of building. For example, the Persian traders who settled along the coast introduced building using stone style similar to that found in Persia. Evidence of buildings seen in Historical sites such as ruins of KilwaKisiwani and Zanzibar.
(v) Introduction of new style of dressing, the people of Africa adopted new style of dressing from the foreigners. Examples those who converted the adopted the Islamic mode of dressing. This included the buibui (a long black rib for women), kanzu (a long while ribe for men), vails for women and barghashia (a small cap) for men.
(vi) Intermarriage, the foreigner intermarried with African, creating a new race of half-castes.
NEGATIVE SOCIAL EFFECTS.
(vii) Cultural interference, this was experienced though interacting with foreigners and adopted their customs. Some Africa forgets their traditional religion, language, mode of dressing and food. This interfered African way of life.
(viii) Warfare and depopulation, Contacts brought slave trade between African and Arabs. The demand of slaves caused warfare between African communities. The wars caused insecurity, loss of life, depopulation and underemployment in many parts in Africa.
(ix) Social stratification, through trading with foreigners, some Africans acquired greatly wealth. This led to the emergence of super rids class of people among the Africans. These people exercised a lot of power and influence in the community. As result there was greatly stratification, with a big difference between the have and have not.
B: POSITIVE ECONOMIC EFFECTS
(i) Introduction of new crops, new crops such as rice, wheat, cloves, sugarcane and orange were introduced to the African continent from the Middle East and Far East. Their crops improved the diet of African. In fact, some grew so well the many people adopted them as their stable foods. For example, rice is a staple food among many people along the Coast of East Africa.
(ii) Exposing Africa to the world, African contacts with the Middle and Far East exposed this continent to the rest of the World. Visitors who came to Africa also travelled to other parts of the world. Africa became involved in the world economy, African products such as Ivory, Gold, Leopard skin and copper became popular and were sold all over the World and in turn African got access to products from outside the world.
(iii) Introduction of money economy, Foreigners introduced the use of currency in trade. This was more convenient and replaced barter trade as the method of exchange. Coins begun to be minted and used in the East African city-states.
(iv) Introduction of new technology, People from the Far East and Middle East brought new technology to Africa. For example, they introduced advanced navigation techniques and the art of keeping records by writing. These things helped African along the Indian Ocean shoreline to travel further. Fishermen could also sail into deeper, get larger catches and dhows, and still used in some fishing communities.
NEGATIVE ECONOMIC EFFECTS.
(v) Unequal Exchange, Traders from the Far and Middle East traded with African using goods with unequal values. They took goods of high value such as slaves, gold, ivory and animal skin in exchange of low value items such as beads, cowrie shells and colored clothes. These commodities from Africa were then sold at great profits in foreign markets; this means that the foreigners gained a lot of expenses of the African.
(vi) Slave Trade, Oman Arabs introduced slave trade to East Africa. Sultan Seyyid Said introduced clover plantations in Zanzibar and then got slaves to work in them. In additional they sold slaves to Europeans who began sugar plantations in America.
(vii) Exploitation of African resources, due to high demand of African commodities in outside world African resources were greatly exploited. For example, large number of elephants and rhinoceros were killed for their horns and many strong young people were captured and sold as slaves. Therefore, this contributed to reduction of African resources.
(viii) Decline of Local industries, the introduction of foreign goods led to the decline of African local industries. Due to the availability of many varieties of clothes, utensils and other tools from abroad few people bought local products so as a results local production also declined.
THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE
THE COMING OF PORTUGUESE
The Portuguese became interested in controlling the Indian Ocean trade in the 15th century due to the commercial capitalism in Europe. At the time, there was great demand for gold, silver silk and spices especially among the kings and wealthy, people, gold and silver were used to make coins and expensive ornaments.
At that time Portugal was a poor country with a small population, it was greatly overshadowed by its larger neighbor Spain. At the beginning of 15th century Portugal had begun to exceed in one area;
Navigation. Portugal Price Henry the navigator set up a navigation school in the country and encouraged exploration voyages. By sailing to Africa, the Portuguese hoped to control trade and enrich the country.
In the 1470’s The Portuguese landed on the Gold coast of West Africa. They built a port which they called Elmina. From this fort they controlled the gold trade between Africa and Europe.
In 1487,Bartholomew Diaz, a Portuguese explorer reached the Southern cape of Africa and called it the Cape of Good Hope. On 1st March 1498, Vasco da Gama reached Malindi on the East African Coast.
The same year he arrived in Calicut, India and became the first European to sail directly from Europe to India.
MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND THE PORTUGUESE
A: ECONOMIC MOTIVES
(i) Finding sea route to India, in the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks had occupied a large part of the middle East, blocking the overland trade route between India and Europe. Therefore, Europeans could not get much valued silk, spices and Gold from Asia. The Portuguese came to Africa as they attempted to find a sea route through which they could trade with India.
(ii) Trade, the Portuguese wanted to trade with Africans and replace the Arab middlemen who took African goods to Europe. Portuguese traders got valuable items such as ivory, gold and gum from Africa and sold them profitably in Europe. In exchange, they brought European cloth, copper and brass items to the Africans. This trade helped to strengthen the Portuguese economy in the 15th century.
(iii) Creating Portuguese Trade Empire, Portugal wanted to dominate the trade between Asia, Africa and Europe and creating a trading empire. To achieve this the Portuguese had to overcome the Arab traders who dominated the trade. In addition, it was necessary to prevent other European nations fromcolonizing the African coast because the world interferes with Portuguese trading interests.
(iv) Exploiting of African resources, Portugal was a poor country, so Portuguese were in search of resources that could bring them wealth and recognition in Europe. Therefore, they established settlements and plantations on the Islands of Sao tome and Principle and they used African labor to grow sugar cane there. The produced products were exported to Europe and America.
(b) Growth of Swahili language. E.g. new Portuguese words i.e. Mvinyo from word Vincho, Meza Etc.
(c) Insecurity and loss of manpower.
THE REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF PORTUGUESE
1) They suffered from tropical disease like malaria.
2) The climate conditions of East African coast were unhealthy for the Portuguese.
3) Social, culture and religion differences i.e. Muslim against Christians.
4) Loss of trade due to Portuguese taxes and restrictions.
5) Harsh treatments and punishment practiced by Portuguese in their leadership.
6) Role played by Oman to the coastal city people. Hence that capture of fort Jesus marked the end of Portuguese in East Africa around 1700.
THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE
SOUTH AFRICA BEFORE THE COMING OF EUROPEANS
The Earliest Inhabitants of South Africa were The San (Bushmen) and the Khoikhoi then followed by Bantu people who inhabited South Africa.
THE SAN: The San people were short and had light brown skin. They had click sound in their language.They lived in highland areas of South Africa. Their main economic Activities were hunting and gathering.They had permanent settlement and they lived in caves.
KHOIKHOI: The Khoikhoi resemble the San but they are taller, Khoikhoi means “men of men” in their language. The San group helped the Khoikhoi to graze their animals. The frequent contact between San and Khoikhoi as they referred to one group of Khoisan.
THE BANTU: These made up the largest group, this was the early inhabitants of South Africa. They include the Iswana, Venda, Gueza, Zulu, Ndebele, Swazi, Shona, Xhosa and Ngoni. They lived a settled life and grew crops such as maize, beans and pumpkins. They used iron tolls and produced enough food which encouraged population growth. The surplus encouraged trade between the communities.
THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE
The Dutch or Boers came from Holland (Netherland) and firstly settled at the cape in Table Bay in April 1652 under the leadership of Jan Van Riebeek.
Dutch farmers called themselves - “BOERS”. When they settled at the cape they called themselves by the name of Afrikaners that meant the “whites of Africa” who developed language known as Afrikaans.
Dutch had a company known as United Dutch East India company (UDEIC). The company had trade with India and other Arabs in Asia. At the cape, they grew vegetables, fruits and kept animals such as cattle.They had barter trade with Khoikhoi exchanging tobacco and alcohol for the cattle.
REASONS FOR DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE
1. The cape was a good place where ships could stop to be refueled.
2. The cape had a good climate to support settlement of the whites. (Temperate and cool climate).
3. The Dutch wanted to produce vegetable and fruits for the ships which sailed to India.
4. The cape could provide fresh water for the sailors.
5. The cape could be a base of projecting their ships on Atlantic and Indian Ocean.
THE EFFECTS/IMPACTS OF THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE.
(i) Enslavement of African, Boers established large plantations, so they needed labors to work to their fields so African were forced to provide their labor.
(ii) Displacement of the African communities, The Dutch displaced the native Africans from the fertile areas and took their livestock by force.
(iii) Occurrence of social segregation, The Dutch thought that they are superior so they mistreated and exploited the African and buying foundation for the Apartheid.
(iv) Expansion of European settlements, Dutch established settlement at the cape in 1685 and their families increased to 150 families.
(v) Introduction of new culture, The Boers introduced the Dutch culture to South Africa that involved theirs way of life which was totally different from that of African.
(vi) Political structure of the Khoikhoi was destroyed.
(vii) Dutch raided cattle from the Khoikhoi.
AFRICAN REACTIONS TO THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT
THE SAN: They resisted Dutch settlement by raiding the Boers cattle’s and Boers took revenge by the hunting down the San in order to wipe them out so many san people were killed.
THE KHOIKHOI: The Boers occupied the traditional Khoikhoi grazing land so many Khoikhoi were enslaved and forced to work on Boers farms in 1659, The Khoikhoi declared war on the Dutch famers and took the war then hundreds of cattle and sheep died.
THE BANTU: Bantu groups included the Zulu, Ndebele, Swazi, Ngoni, Tambu and Xhosa communities.
They cultivated variety of crops such as sugarcane, melons, maize and beans. The level of production they had reached enabled them to accumulate surplus and trade began to be conducted among them. The Boers got the Great Fish River, they encountered the Xhosa who lived around that region. The Boers fought the major wars against the Xhosa. The Xhosa called these war “Wars of possession” but the Boers called them “Kaffir wars”.
THE KAFFIR WARS OR WARS OF DISPOSSESSION.
These were series of wars carried out by the Xhosa from 1779 against Boers – at the great fish river.
The first three wars were in 1779, 1789 and 1803.
The fourth (known as Ndhalambi) happened in 1812
The fifth (known as Makanda) in 1819.
The sixth in 1834.
The seventh in 1846>
The 8th (Malenjin – 1850 –1853)
The last resistance by the Xhosa (Mlakaza was an advisor to one of the Xhosa).
The Battle of Vegkop of 19th October 1836.
Ndebele under Mzilikazi fought against the Boers in the Orange Free states.
The Battle of the Blood River on 11th February, 1837.
ZULU UNDER Dingane fought against Boer settlement in natal.
Anglo Zulu war.
Zulu under Cetshowayo fought strongly and defeated the British at the Battle of Island lwana.
But later the British suppressed the Zulu during the battle of Ulundi 4th July, 1879.
MFECANE MOVEMENTS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA.
The word ‘Mfecane’ originated from zulu word which means ‘crushing’. Mfecane was the period of wides preading warfare, plundering, disturbances, destruction and migrations among the southern African tribes dominated the first half of nineteenth century. This was the period of serious upheaval among the Bantu-speaking groups in southern Africa, the period when emerging small chiefdoms were waging expansionism wars among themselves.
This was in the high area which lies between the Drakensberg Mountains, Kalahari Desert and the Limpopo River. By the late eighteenth century, and early nineteenth century, the Ndwandwe, Mthethwa, and Ngwane were emerging as powerful kingdoms south of the Highveld.
The powerful chiefdoms with chiefs ambitious to expand their possessions began the conquest and assimilation of neighboring groups. The all turmoil commenced around 1810’s when Zwide of Ndwande andSobhuza of Ngwane fought over land along the Pongola River and Sobhuza was defeated after which he led his people further inland to the area that is known as Swaziland today.
After defeating Sobhuza, Zwide came into conflict with Dingiswayo of Mthethwa over other resources like land and water. Both kingdoms became more centralized and militarized. The Zulu were still a small group among the Mthethwa by this time. The Ndwandwe appeared victorious again in 1818, Dingiswayo was killed, and his forces scattered.
Shaka who was previously a warrior in the Dingiswayo’s army, had already ascended the chief of the Zulu under full support of Dingiswayo upon the death of Senzangakona his father in 1816. As the Mthethwa nation fell apart after Dingiswayo's death Shaka who became ambitious to create new strong kingdom, used the opportunity to defeat all the chiefdoms in the area. Zwiderealised that Shaka could become a threat and decided to stop him, thus became the Shaka’s great enemy, but was
defeated in 1818 by the Zulu’s superior strategy and disciplined army. In 1926, under Zwide’s successor Sikhunyani , they challenged the Zulu forces again and were completely destroyed. Nguni speaking people, the Ndebele and many other tribes not ready to be ruled by Shaka emigrated. Thus Zulu became very vast strong kingdom in southern Africa. This period between 1810’s-1850’s is what is known as the period of Mfecane.
CAUSES OR REASONS OF MFECANE
(i) Population pressure, Zulu land is part of the Eastern corridor of South Africa between the Drakensburg Mountains and the Indian Ocean. Due to the favorable climate and absence of diseases such as malaria, its population tended to increase rapidly. As the population increased conflicts between those societies became common and intensified leading to the Mfecane.
(ii) Shortage of land, the people who occupied Zulu land were farmers, but the existing land was not enough due to population pressure, therefore the search for more land caused conflicts that later contributed to the outbreak of the Mfecane.
(iii) The role of Shaka, Shaka pursued an aggressive and expansionist policy to expand his Kingdom, Zulu state. He attacked many states in the attempt of expanding his state, this action created conflicts that contributed to the outbreak of the Mfecane.
(iv) Expansion of cape whites, there was the great desire by whites at the capes to expand in the interior in order to acquire more land. Therefore, the expansion of whites in cape worsened the shortage of land and thus crushes among the tribes in the interior.
(v) The control of trade at delagoa bay, trade in ivory with the Portuguese in Delagoa Bay was another factor provoked conflicts among them. Because of the desire to control trade some Nguni tribes began to attack others in order to control and acquire more tribute.
(vi) The coming of the Boers, during the Boer Trek, the Boers left Cape Town away from British control and moved into the interior of South Africa, the penetration of the Boers into the interior of South Africa intensified the pressure on land which led to conflicts that caused the Mfecane.
EFFECTS OF MFECANE
(i) It led to the loss of thousands of lives, as it was the warfare and crushes among the people, many chiefs and common people lost their lives in the course of fighting.
(ii) It caused depopulation in many communities, thousands more were uprooted from their homes and were forced to travel great distances. Example of these were Ngoni and Ndebele.
(iii) Destruction of properties, refugees moving in larger groups fleeing Shaka’s army caused destruction in many areas they passed through.
(iv) Emergence of any new kingdoms, many migrating tribes went to establish strong states where they settled. For example, Zulu empire emerged as a very strong political entity with very wide range expansion base.
(v) It led to the decline of many central and east African kingdoms, those kingdoms which could not stand against the military strength of the tribes from the south declined. Example of those kingdoms that were destroyed partly due to Nguni invasions were the Lozi, RozwiandTumbu.
(vi) Famine and hunger, although the mfecane in many ways promoted the political development of southern Africa, it also caused great suffering. Thousands died because of famine.
(vii) It led to the more European penetration into the interior,As many areas became depopulated,made it very easy for the Dutch famers (Boers) to easily take over the place when they were looking for new lands to establish homes. Great numbers of people were displaced and frightened communities left their own areas in places like the Orange Free State, Natal and the Transvaal occupied by whites.
EAST AFRICA UNDER OMAN’S RULE 1840.
The Oman Arabs helped East Africans to defeat Portuguese along the coastal in 1698. Oman now became rulers. Therefore, people of East Africa were not free apart from defeating the Portuguese.
In 1741, Mombasa established her independence chief domain under Mazrui family; this was an order from Arabs family of Oman in origin the Mazrui family was conquered by Sultan Seyyid Said of Oman.
From 1840 onwards, Sultan Seyyid Said becomes the master of the East African coast.
MOTIVES/AIMS OF OMAN ARABS IN EAST AFRICA.
1) To have clear control/monopoly of trade existed at the coast especially Indian ocean trade.
2) They wanted to control all the city-states along the coast.
3) To stop the spread of Christianity led by Portuguese and maintaining Islamic culture.
WHY SULTAN SEYYID SAID SHIFTED HIS CAPITAL FROM MUSCAT OMAN TO ZANZIBAR.
The following were the factors for sultan Seyyid Said to shift his capital from Muscat Oman to Zanzibar in 1840.
1) Good climatic condition supported the settlement of Arabs.
2) Fertile soil for agricultural purpose especially clove and coconut products.
3) Deep natural harbor in Zanzibar for importation and exportation of goods.
4) Trade activities examples controlling the Indian Ocean trade.
5) Abundant fresh water for irrigation and soiling.
6) To avoid conflict in his home after killing his brother Iman said.
IMPACTS OF OMAN ARABS (SULTAN) DOMINATION IN EAST AFRICA.
A: ECONOMIC IMPACTS.
1. Increase of slave trade.
2. Land alienation.
3. East African people were exposed to international trade.
4. The expansion of trade.
5. Introduction of new cash crops example; coconut and cloves.
6. Establishment of feudalism where African become serfs and tenants
7. Exploitation of African resources.
B: SOCIAL IMPACTS.
1. Death due to resistance against the Arabs
2. Spread of Swahili language.
3. Development of Swahili language. E.g. Addition of Arabic words like Sali, habari etc.
4. Spread of Islamic religion.
5. Slavery activities.
SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN SEA BOARD
Slave: Is the person who is illegally owned and controlled by another person and is forced to work for them.
Slavery: Is an act of owning and using slaves.
Slave trade: Is the activity of buying and selling human beings like other commodities.
Slave trade in East Africa began after the arrival of Portuguese in 15th Century up to 1873 during the Sayyid Barghash treaty or free treaty.
Africa experienced two types of slave trade.
1. The Indian Ocean slave trade which was conducted by Asians.
2. The Trans-Atlantic Ocean slave trade conducted by European merchants.
1. THE INDIAN OCEAN SLAVE TRADE
Main peoples involved: Arab traders, European merchants, African chiefs e.g. Mirambo and NyunguyaMawe, The Nyamwezi, The Kamba, The Yao, Buganda, Banyoro, Khartoumers.
The Nyamwezi: They were called Nyamwezi (people of the moon) because they came from the West direction in which the new moon is first seen.
Their involvement in slave trade was partly caused by the demand for slaves in the interior. They dealt in ivory, copper, slaves and wax they wanted to acquire commodities like glass, spices, clothes, mirrors, guns in exchange for slaves.
The Role of chief Mirambo: Mirambo was born around 1830 AD and spent part of his life as a captive of the Tuta Ngoni in Bugoma.
He organized a strong army of highly paid mercenaries (rugaruga) who were the basis of his power.
He established friendly relations with KabakaMutesa of Buganda with whom they trade in salt, slaves, iron implements grains and livestock. He acquired guns from Arab and Swahili traders and this helped him during his empire building process.
He controlled major trade routed in his territory by imposing taxes on traders passing through his area.
Between 1860-1870, Mirambo carried out extensive conquests Vinza and Tongwe and recruited some abled men for his army and sold others in slavery.
Unfortunately, when Mirambo died in 1884, his empire also collapsed because it lacked a military leaderas powerful and courageous as him.
The Role of NyunguYamawe: The name NyunguYamawe was a praise name meaning “Pot of stones”
Nyungu was a prince of the NyunguYembe ruling family but failed in 1865 after the Arabs had beheaded the Chief Mnwasele.
After the Arabs had beheaded the chief of Nyunguyamawe was terrified and ran away in 1865 and
established himself at Kiwele south from where they systematically attacked and defeated the people of the regions.
His society was strategically located such that he controlled all trading activities along the routes. From the East African coast to Utipa, Tanganyika and other trading activities. This economic progress contributed to his political development.
He conquered people and those who tried to oppose him were punished severely and others sold off as slaves. Unlike Mirambo ‘s empire that collapsed immediately, Nyunguyamawe ‘s empire went on for many years after his death mainly because of economic organization and efficient political system he had created.
Nyungu’s rulers took over the collection of ivory from the conquered clients and sent it to him at Kiwele. He formed a strong centralize administration with his own rulers (vatwale) placed over conquered chiefdoms directly responsible for him.
The role of Akamba: These lived in southern Kenya highlands. Their ancestors lived here as hunters and shifting agriculture when they grew rich, some Kamba communities bought slaves from the coast to do their farming. The YaoThe role of YaoThe Yao were the most active East African slave traders.
This was mainly because of the growing demand for slaves at the coast and also the nature of the Yao society. It was the custom for ambitious Yao rulers to increase their power not just by capturing territories but also you raiding their neighbors for slaves who then became their personal followers.
The role of Buganda: These lived in the central region of Uganda. Their importance was significant in the commercial life of the region; they traded in Bark cloth, ivory and slaves.
They were friendly to Arabs who supplied them with guns that they used to protect and expand their Kingdom.
The role of Khartoumers: These were Egyptians and Sudanese traders who dealt in ivory and slaves.
They were semi-official representatives of the Egyptian government with several hundred armed men in their pay.
Banyoro, Buganda and Bunyoro were enemies, kabakaMutesa I stopped slave traders from going to Bunyoro. However, they dealt in backcloth, slaves and salt.
REASONS FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE INDIAN OCEAN SLAVE TRADE
1. The Oman Arabs who were ruling the East African coast at the time introduced clove plantations in Zanzibar and Pemba. These plantations required large numbers of labors to tend to them.
2. There was also a high demand for slave labor for the French sugar plantations in Mauritius and Reunion Island. Initially, the French mostly depended on the area around present-day Mozambique for slaves, but by the 1770s the demand exceeded supply. Hence, the French came further north, to East Africa, in search of slaves.
3. Slaves were needed as porters. They ferried goods such as ivory and gold from interior of Africa to the Coast. This was important for the ivory trade, especially to the American, Indian and British traders who took part in it.
4. Portuguese slave traders supplied slaves to the Portuguese coffee and sugar plantations in Brazil.
In the first half of the 18th century, the Portuguese expanded their plantations. As a result, their sources of slaves in West Africa and Mozambique became inadequate, so they came to East Africa.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SLAVE TRADE.
There were the characteristics which prevailed during slave trade.
1. There were several human torture and transits.
2. Humiliation and dehumanization of the slaves.
3. Slave were chained and forced to carry heavy loads like salt, ivory and copper.
4. They were brutally whipped by their organizers.
5. They were blended like animals. Those who were unfit were killed or left to die on the way.
COMMODITIES EXCHANGED
From interior to the coast –Ivory and slaves, animal skins, minerals.
From the coast to the interior caravans brought clothes, salts wine, glass ware beads and ornaments.
HOW SLAVES WERE OBTAINED (TECHNIQUES USED TO OBTAIN SLAVES)
Slaves were obtained through various ways:
(i) Through raiding village and capturing people.
(ii) Through selling prisoners of war obtained from local civil wars.
(iii) Through selling criminals.
(iv) Through selling of domestic slaves.
(v) Through ways of laying and ambush.
(vi) Through use of trickery and false pretense.
(vii) Through inter-tribal wars many Africans become destitute.
IMPACTS OF SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN SEA BOARD.
SOCIAL EFFECTS
(i) Depopulation; many people were taken to work as slaves and others died on the way.
(ii) Insecurity and fear among the people.
(iii) Development of inter-states war.
(iv) Human torture and suffering
(v) Hunger due to lack of good in areas where slave trade operated.
(vi) Growth of Arab towns such as Tabora and Ujiji.
(vii) Eruption of diseases among overcrowded slaves. E.g., The Spaniards introduced Syphilis.
(viii) Displacement of people and many became homeless.
(ix) Introduction of Swahili language, this was introduced in land and is now being widely spoken in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and eastern Congo.
(x) Introduction of Islamic religion, Islam as a religion was introduced by the Arabs and it spread, especially in Yao land and in Buganda land.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS
(i) Killing of economic activities, agriculture, pastoralism and industries were killed due to lack of manpower.
2. TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE
Refers to that type of trade that involve three continents America, Africa and Europe.
The Atlantic slave trade was divided into two eras, known as first and second Atlantic system.
(a) The first Atlantic system
This was the trade of enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies of the Portuguese and
Spanish empires; it accounted for only slightly more than 3% for all Atlantic slave trade. It started (on a
significant scale) in about 1502 and lasted until 1580, when Portugal was temporarily united with Spain.
(b) The second Atlantic system
This was the trade of enslave Africans by mostly British, Portuguese, Brazilian, French and Dutch traders.
The main destinations of this phase were the Caribbean colonies, Brazil and Americas a number of European countries built up economically slave dependent colonies in the New World. Amongst the proponents of this system were Francis Drake and John Hawkins.
ORIGIN OF TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE.
The Portuguese were the first foreigners to capture slaves off the coast of West Africa. They built a fort on Arguin Island (Mauritania) where they bought gold and slaves from Gambia and Senegal.
Most of these slaves were taken to plantations in Portugal and Southern Spain. By 1471, the Portuguese expanded their gold and slave trading activities to Ghana. In 1482, they built Elmina castle to serve as their base there.
COMMODITIES OF EXCHANGE. The major commodities of exchange in the triangular trade were;
AFRICA – Exported slaves, gold, ivories and animal skins.
AMERICA- exported sugar, cotton, Tobacco, Gold and Silver.
EUROPE – Supplied manufactured goods such as clothes, gunpowder, glassware, sugar and tobacco.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE
(i) The rise of capitalism, this mode of production depended on exploitation of one man by another.
Capitalism emerged in Europe after the decline of feudalism in Europe especially the first stage of
capitalism mercantilism where slaves became part of the commodities to be traded to accumulate wealth.
(ii) Discovery of marine technology, the invention of gunpowder, shipbuilding, compass direction, and motor engine acted as a pushing force for the rise of slave trade, it facilitated the transportation of the commodities and slave dealers.
(iii) The discovery of the new world, on 24 October 1492 Christopher Columbus discovered a new world that opened a new chapter as far as slave trade was concerned it brought high sky demand of cheap labor to work in the new plantations in the Caribbean islands.
(iv) The profitability factor, this acted as an attracting force for many mercantilists to join a trade based on unequal exchange imagine exchanging human being with spices, umbrella, gold, ivory with guns, mirrors and cloth.
(v) Accumulation of wealth, Mercantilists accumulated a lot from this trade which enabled them to sustain super profits obtained and in addition to that, many crops could not be sold for profit, or even grown in Europe.
(vi) The expensiveness of White slaves, Before the mid of 17th century the European mercantilists depended on indentured labourers, criminal convicts, contract labourers and refugees from Europe who proved to be expensive and undependable compared to Africans who were not paid anything apart from their basic needs for survival and were slaves for life.
(vii) The establishment of plantations, after the discovery of the new world, many Europeans flocked to America; these included the British, French, Portuguese and the Dutch. Many of these immigrants
established plantations that caused more demand for slave labor. The increased demand contributed to the development of Trans–Atlantic slave trade.
(viii) Accessibility, the accessibility between the new world and the West African coast facilitated the rise of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. The distance from West Africa to the new world is very narrow thus it made it possible for the transportation of goods between the two regions.
(ix) The inability of the indigenous people, at first the Europeans were using Native Americans, red indians to provide cheap labor on the plantations and mining centers; but these later died in huge numbers due to plague. This called for the importation of African slaves which contributed to the rise of the Trans Atlantic slave trade.
(x) Climatic conditions of the New World, meant that Africans could easily live there since they were used to tropical climates and had immunity of tropical diseases more than people from Europe and Asia. They were able to withstand diseases and conditions of the New World.
(xi) The existence of seasonal winds, like the northeast trade wind, north equatorial current, the Southwest and the Gulf streams encouraged the growth of this trade by enabling the vessels of the merchants to sail to Africa, New World and Europe.
IMPACT OF THE TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE
ECONOMIC EFFECTS
(i) Removal of African labor, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade was associated with the uprooting of many Africans who were taken to provide cheap labor on European plantations in America. The ones who were taken were between the ages of 15 and 35 who made up the productive force in Africa.
(ii) Stagnation of African technolgy, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade contributed to the stagnation of African technology. It led to the flooding of European manufactured goods which were exchanged for slaves.
(iii) Decline of African agricultural production, there was decline in agricultural production due to the loss of labor. Those who were taken as slaves were the ones who were very active in farms, thus their removal led to shortage of labor consequently causing the decline in agricultural production.
(iv) Decline of African traditional industries, due to these goods Africans abandoned production and exchanged their fellow Africans with the Europeans goods. The manufactured goods from Europe also destroyed African traditional industries by killing the market for African local goods.
(v) Land alienation, Africans were robbed of their best arable land and were turned into serfs and tenants who had to sell off their labor to Arab landowners for their survival. Watumbatu and Waamidu provided their labor in coconut and cloves plantations.
SOCIAL EFFECTS
(i) Depopulation, it led to depopulation because millions of Africans were uprooted and exported to America as cheap labor. It is believed that during the 400 years of slave trade, around 100,000,000 Africans were taken as slaves.
(ii) Famine, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade contributed to famine in Africa. The trade was characterized with insecurity because of slave trading activities, the insecurity made it difficult for people to engage in agricultural production.
(iii) Destruction of African culture, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade was associated with an influx of foreigners especially Europeans. This led to a destruction of African traditional values because Africans were coping European culture.
(iv) Separation of families, some abandoned their homes due to insecurity, some died while trying to escape and some were taken away as slaves.
POLITICAL EFFECTS
(i) Decline of states, some states declined because they were weakened when their subjects were captured and sold as slaves. For example, Wanyasa were greatly weakened by frequent slave raids from their Yao neighbors.
(ii) The rise of states, some strong states arose due to accumulation of wealth from slave trade. E.g., the Yao state under Machemba, Nyamwezi under Mirambo and Buganda kingdom under KabakaMutesa.
TOPIC 4:
INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM
The Meaning of Industrial Capitalism
Capitalism is the social, political and economic system based on private ownership of the major means of production.
It first developed in Europe during the 15th century when feudalism collapsed.
Under the capitalism system companies and individuals own and direct most of the resources used in production of goods and services. Capitalism underwent different stages before reaching its maturity.
These stages included:
1. Commercial or mercantile capitalism
2. Industrial capitalism
3. Monopoly capitalism
1. Commercial or mercantile capitalism: Was the first stage of capitalism where by its economic system was based on trade and commerce.
It took place between the year 1500 and 1750. The merchants obtained wealth through trade activities.
A lot of wealth was accumulated during this period and therefore increased new demands that resulted into development of another stage of capitalism known as industrial capitalism.
2. Industrial capitalism: This was the period when machines begun to be used for production in industries. The transition to industrial capitalism was the period when mercantile capitalism was giving way to industrial capitalism.
This stage of industrial capitalism took place between the 1750s and 1870s.
The transition was manifested by five major events namely:
(i) Political revolution
(ii) Agrarian revolution
(iii) Demographic revolution
(iv) Commercial revolution
(v) Transport revolution
THE DEMANDS OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM
(i) Needs for raw materials, the increasing production due to expansion of industries needed large quantities of raw materials supply. These materials included cotton, coffee, tea, iron ore, palm oil, sisal, sugar cane, tobacco and rubber. The available raw materials could not meet the demand needed by industries. This resulted into the search and control of the sources of raw materials.
(ii) Need for Market, due to the investment of capital in production, industrial goods flooded the European markets. Overproduction and under consumption became a critical problem among the industrial capitalists hence they were forced to look for markets outside Europe.
(iii) Need Areas for investment; due to unreliable markets and high concentration of capital in Europe, profit marginalization occurred. As a solution new areas for investment were needed among other areas, Africa provided the best areas for investment of such capital. In Africa the tropical crops could do better compared to other countries it was also a good source for non-agricultural raw materials such as minerals and forest products.
(iv) Need areas for Cheap labors, due to labor consciousness caused by working class in Europe and Britain in particular, the need to search for cheap labor become important. This was a measure taken to compete in production for profit maximization.
(v) Need area for settlement; also they demanded the area for surplus unemployed personal population in their countries.
REASONS FOR THE INCREASING DEMAND OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN 19TH CENTURY
(i) Competition in industrial production, European capitalist nations increased the demand for industrial development as a result of competition in industrial production.
(ii) American independence, resulted in the development of the industrial sector. By the beginning of the 1870s, Europe could not easily enter U.S.A since it had introduced protective tariffs to keep out foreign manufactured goods and protect its industries. By the 1860s, markets for manufactured goods and sources of raw materials in Europe had greatly declined.
(iii) Accumulation of wealth, in order to ensure this, they decided to invest the wealth that was being obtained in industries into other areas outside Europe.
(iv) Overpopulation and unemployment, the problem of overpopulation and unemployment was also rising in European countries. Therefore, the solution to those problems was sought outside Europe.
(v) Demands for raw materials, the highly demanded raw materials were cotton, oil, sugar cane, ivory, rubber and iron ore. Most of these raw materials could not be found in Europe in large quantities. In fact, those tropical crops could not grow in Europe. Following this Europe decided to produce such raw materials in Africa, India, New Zealand, Australia and China. In those areas raw materials were produced in large quantity than in Britain and other nations in Europe.
AGENTS OF INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM
There were about four groups of agents of industrial capitalism in Africa namely:
1. Explorers
2. Missionaries
3. Traders
1. EXPLORERS. During the nineteenth century, the major aim of European powers was the exploration of Africa.
In east Africa, exploration was done by the prominent explores such as Speke, Burton, Grant, Samuel Baker, Henry M. Stanley and Dr. Livingstone, while in central Africa and parts of Congo the prominent explorers were Dr. Livingstone and later Henry M. Stanley.
And in West Africa the prominent explorers included Richard Lander, Dr. Barth Mungo Park, Clapperton, Dr. Baikie, Gaspard Mollien and Cailie.
The journey of exploration was financed and supported by European capitalists. The main aim was together information about Africa because they needed a wider knowledge of the continent. They also wanted to know about the raw materials which African had to sell and the location of the main centers of population. Moreover, they were interested in the knowledge of transport potentialities of African great river systems. For example, the British explorer, Mungo Park in 1780s, followed by Clapperton and Richard Lander explored the Niger and gathered important information about the economy and politics of West Africa.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY EXPLORERS IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA
(i) They reported back about the potentialities of the African resources, Clapperton reported about the river Niger to the British government while Speke reported about the potentiality of Lake Victoria and named it Victoria to honor Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.
- London missionary society,
- the church missionary society,
- Roman Catholic missionary society and the universities mission to central Africa (UMCA).
(viii) They helped in the abolition of slave trade; they planned for successful Christianization of the freed slaves as they preached the word of God. They wanted to create the conducive and peaceful environment for the development of legitimate trade which was exploitative in nature and was after capitalists’ interests.
(ix) They had closer links with rulers and interfered even in political matters, they allied European imperialism while they were working in the interior of Africa. This situation provoked the hostility from African rulers. In this case, missionaries appealed strongly for the protection from their home governments, which later led to effective colonization.
3. TRADERS. Traders were among the first Europeans to visit the interior and coastal areas of Africa.
They came under the influence of capitalists who also supported missionaries and explorers.
Their main aim was to exploit the new sources of raw materials, markets and new areas in which industrial capitalists had to invest their capital.
Examples of traders are William Mackinnon, James Stevenson, Harry Johnston and Carl Peters.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY TRADERS IN THE COLONISATION OF AFRICA
(i) They opened a new an exploitative system, therefore, Africa became the target for European interests. This resulted in stiff rivalries and competition among European industrial nations.
(ii) They introduced legitimate trade; this involved the importation of European manufactured goods.
Thus, the chain of dependence was created and the African local industries and the arts were destroyed.
(iii) They exposed Africa to the world capitalist system of economy, the use of currency, banking and credit facilities began to be witnessed by Africans. This resulted into exploitation of African resources. The fair and quick turns obtained by traders attracted European colonialists to come into Africa.
(iv) They opened communication systems, this laid the foundation for future colonial infrastructure. For example, the road from Lake Nyasa to Tanganyika known as Livingstone road was opened by traders and was used during the colonial administration.
COMPANIES AND ASSOCIATIONS
Companies and association were among the most important agents of colonization of Africa. Agents organized themselves into companies and associations. They received finance from their home government so as to operate effectively and differently in those areas, where the governing powers had their economic interests. They aimed at financing the exploration that showed the interest of coming to Africa.
Examples of the association included
the Royal British Geographical society, financed by John Speke to explore the river Nile.
Another was the African Association of British, which in 1788 financed Mungo Park.
Its major aim was to explore and identify the areas suitable for agriculture, which could produce enough materials for export.
Another concern of that association was to identify the navigable rivers, mineral deposits and assessing the market available for industrial goods.
In the abolition of slave trade, merchant companies became increasingly involved in the interior of Africa.
The major aim of these companies was to establish the so-called “legitimate trade”. This was trade in commodities and other resources that industrial capitalist required as raw materials or as food for the urban working classes. The legitimate trade did not involve the selling and buying human Several companies in Africa were established at strategic points for the purpose of collecting important commodities for export and supplying manufactured goods from Europe.
(viii) They provided rudimentary administration in areas of their operation, some company leaders such as Sir. George Turban Goldie of the Royal Niger Company, Harry Johnston, the representative of Cecil Rhodes of the British South Africa Company, attended the Berlin Conference of 1884-188 5. They also notified the conference about areas where they operate on behalf of their mother countries.
(ix) They played an important role of marking of the administrative boundaries, which were later identified as boundaries of the European spheres of influence. They prevented any other rival European imperial power from taking their territories. This was evidenced in East Africa where the German East Africa Company marked the area of the German in the Anglo-German rivalry and achieved the 1886 agreement. While in South Africa the British South Africa Company managed to map the claims ofBritain, thus preventing the Portuguese from interfering in the British sphere of influence.
ABOLITION OF SLAVE TRADE
Refers to the state of ending slave trade.
Or
was the act of freeing slaves and stopping the use of human beings as commodities.
Britain was the first nation to Establish abolition of slave trade campaign. In 1833, Britain abolished slavery, in 1865 U.S.A also abolished and the total abolition of slave trade in East Africa took place during the colonial period.
REASONS FOR THE ABOLITION OF SLAVE TRADE
ECONOMIC REASONS
(i) Capitalist production, this involves two classes of societies, which are the capitalists who control the major means of production and the workers who are employed by the capitalists. For the workers to be effectively employed, they must be free and not slaves.
(ii) Need for markets, due to the industrial revolution, there was increased production of industrial products in Europe that lacked enough demand; this forced the British to abolish slave trade so that markets can be created in Africa for their manufactured goods.
(iii) Need for raw materials, due to the industrial revolution, there was increased demand for raw materials in Britain. The existing raw materials were limited to supply due to the mushrooming of industries. This situation necessitated the abolition of the slave trade so that Africans can produce theneeded raw materials.
(iv) The use of machines, the industrial revolution was characterized by the use of machines in the production process, these machines replaced human labor. The owners of the machines campaigned for the abolition of the slave trade because slave labor had become redundant.
(v) French and British competition over sugar production, for so long period, the British had a monopoly on sugar in the European market. The sugar was produced by slave labor in the British West indies. The British was selling their sugar at very high prices thus making huge profits. However, by the end of the 18thC, the French West Indies and re union islands were producing sugar in large quantities and selling at a cheaper price thus making more profits than the British. This situation made slave labor in British West Indies useless thus forcing the British to abolish the slave trade.
(vi) The rise of men with new ideas, Prof. Adam Smith (challenged the economic arguments that were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labor is cheaper and more productive than slave labor, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men.
(vii) The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa, and began raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave trade.
SOCIAL REASONS
(i) Religious reasons, the religious bodies contributed to the abolition of the slave trade in Africa. They argued that slave trade was against the will of God because he had created all people equal but slave trade was treating Africans as an inferior class. The Christians denounced slave trade in the name of God and argued that it must be abolished.
(ii) French revolution of 1789, the French revolution of 1789 had a role to play in the abolition of the slave trade. The slogan of the revolution was fraternity, liberty and equality. Philosophers such as Rousseau campaigned for the abolition of slave trade. These philosophers claimed that slave trade was against the ideals of the French revolution thus it had to be stopped.
(iii) Humanitarian movements, the humanitarians such as Granville sharp and Thomas Clarkson played a certain role in the abolition of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. These people argued that slave trade had caused a lot of suffering to the people thus it had to be abolished. These efforts were followed by British declarations of 1807 and 1833 which abolished slave trade and slavery.
TACTICS USED TO ABOLISH SLAVE TRADE
Abolitionist and humanitarians used several methods to pressure nations to abolish slave trade in the world. These tactics include the following;
(i) They used campaign meetings, sometimes they asked freed slaves to address the realities and how they were mistreated in slavery.
(ii) Anti-Slavery trade patrol ships from Britain; they patrolled the seas to prevent ships from sailing from Africa with slaves.
(iii) Intellectuals and writers used books, newspapers and magazines to condemn slavery and slave trade.
(iv) Treaties to stop slave trade were signed between nations. Some of the treaties signed between the sultan of Zanzibar and the British in East Africa were;
In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects.
In 1817 British negotiated the “the reciprocal search treaties” with Spain and Portugal.
Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835, Portugal 1842 and America 1862. In east Africa in 1822 Mores by treaty was signed between captain Moresby and sultan Seyyid Said it forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan's territories. British sips were authorized to stop and search suspected Arabs slave carrying dhows.
In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and sultan Seyyid Said. It forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan's East Africa territories i.e. beyond to the North.
In 1871, the British set up the parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on slave trade in East Africa.
In 1872, sir. Bartle Frere persuaded sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was achieved.
On 5th march 1873, the sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from mainland and closed of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours.
In 1876, sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland.
In 1897, decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves
In 1907, slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba.
In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika when British took over from Germany after the Second World war.
EFFECTS OF THE ABOLITION OF THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE
(i) Foundation of sierra Leone and Liberia, these areas were established by the Europeans powers as settlements for the freed slaves. They received freed slaves from America. It should be noted that the Trans-Atlantic slave trade uprooted millions of Africans who were supposed to offer labor in America.
(ii) Introduction of legitimate trade, there was introduction of legitimate trade that involved the buying and selling of natural resources, Example palm oil and cocoa. The colonial powers introduced legitimate trade so that it can facilitate the acquisition of raw materials and markets which were crucial in Europe after the industrial revolution.
(iii) Exploitation of hinterland, before the abolition of the slave trade, the colonial powers operated along the coast of West Africa searching for slaves, but after the abolition of slave trade they penetrated the interior searching for raw materials and market where they can sell their manufactured goods.
(iv) Increased spread of Christianity, the European powers increased the spread of Christianity after the abolition of slave trade. Christianity was a way of compensating for the ills committed by slave trade.
This religion was also spread to counter the spread of Islam in West Africa.
(v) Increased provision of social services, the colonial powers increased the provision of social services especially education. The main aim of colonial education was to train Africans to become better producers of raw materials that were needed in Europe. Colonial education was also supposed to change the mentality of Africans to prefer European goods thus created a ready market for them.
(vi) Improvement of the agricultural sector, the colonial powers improved the agricultural sector by introducing better methods of farming to increase the production of raw materials. It should be noted that the colonialists discouraged the production of food crops in Africa.
(vii) Linguistic studies, the colonial powers studied native languages so that they can be able to translate the Bible into local languages. This move was to convert many Africans to Christianity. The languages that were studied by the imperialist were Hausa and Fulani.
BRITISH OCCUPATION AT THE CAPE
Britain took control of the cape during the period of Mercantilism in Europe. In 1580 Sir Francis Drake became the first British man to round the Cape of Good Hope. At the end of 18th century, The British became interested in seizing the cape colony from the Dutch.
The British first occupation of South Africa was in 1795 when they attacked and defeated the Boers at the Cape. There was a peace treaty between the Dutch and the British in 1802 and the Cape was given back to them Dutch in 1803. However, in 1806 the British decided to re-occupy the Cape by defeating the Dutch.
MOTIVES FOR THE BRITISH INTERESTS IN THE CAPE
(i) They wanted to protect their ships on the sea route to India.
(iii) They wanted to protect themselves against ships of enemies.
(iv) They wanted to get raw materials, market and area for investment.
(v) They wanted to increase colonies.
TACTICS USED BY THE BRITISH TO OCCUPY THE CAPE
(i) Introduction of land legislation system, they aimed at discouraging pastoralism among Boers and to encourage sedentary farming since the policy limited the size of an individual's land. The Dutch thought that the British introduced the land law to take land from the Boers and redistribute it to the landless Khoikhoi so they opposed the land law.
(ii) Abolition of slave trade and slavery in 1807, The British government abolished slave trade in all their colonies and offered compensation for slaves but the money was only paid in London as a result the majority did not get their compensation. However, freeing slaves endangered the economic survival of the Boers as they depended much on slave labor.
(iii) Imposition of the English language as the as the official language, of administering the law and justice and the medium of instruction in schools in 1822. Hence, English language replaced the Dutch as he official language.
(iv) Abolition of internal trade restriction imposed by the Dutch company, officials on the farmers and other settlers at the cape. This created more trade opportunities as they could now trade freely without strictly control from the administration.
(v) Introduction of the pass in 1809, to reduce the exploitation of African labor as the system required African workers to carry passbooks which indicated their residence and employment, and those who did not carry them were regarded as criminals. The pass prevented the Africans from moving from district to district or moving into areas occupied by Europeans.
(vi) Introduction of contract system, through this the Boers were to sign contracts with their workers. In those contracts, they were to mention the wages and other fringe benefits that they gave to their workers.
Therefore, the Boers regarded the contract system as British interference in the traditional Boer-Africans relationship of master-servant.
(vii) Introduction of the Black circuit court system in 1811, in order to reduce acts of violence committed by European employers against African employees. The law angered the Boers who considered themselves a superior race and thus natural masters of the Africans.
(viii) Introduction of English law, as the basis of the legal system in South Africa.
(ix) Provision of financial aid to the British settlers by the British government, this encouraged more of its citizens to immigrate to the Cape as a result in 1820 some 300 British settlers arrived in South Africa increasing the total white population by almost 12% within weeks.
THE BOERS TREK
A TREK simply means a movement of people from one place to another in large groups.
BOER TREK was the migration of the Boers from the Cape of Good Hope to other interior parts of South Africa in order to find new settlement areas.
The historical background of the Boers movement can be traced back with the arrival of British towards the end of 18th century, who established their administration at the cape colony. With presence of British, everything at the cape changed into negative to Boers. For example, Bores were now treated of equal status with the Africans. The migration took place from 1830s to 1840s where the Boers moved in groups of families at different times to different parts of interior South Africa, in a movement that later became known as the BOERS GREAT TREK.
REASONS/CAUSES FOR THE BOERS TREK
(i) Introduction of British government, British established their settlements at the Cape of Good Hope early in 19th century. Here, both Boers and natives were under British domination. The Boer did not want to be under the British government, that’s why they decided to move out from the Cape of Good Hope, to interior where they could establish their independent states.
(ii) Abolition of slavery and slave trade, the other fundamental change that British rule brought about was the ending of the slave trade and then the total banning of slavery. The British abolished slavery and slave trade in 1833 which was established by the Boers. Nevertheless, many of the original Dutch settlers were extremely unhappy about the emancipation of slaves.
(iii) Introduction of English language as an official language, the coming of the British led to introduction of English language as an official language in 1822 that was to be spoken by all people at the Cape. This made the Boers to become discontent hence Boer Trek.
(iv) Shortage of land at the cape, the coming of the British at the cape led to increase of population. The Cape of Good Hope became overpopulated. This led to shortage of land hence Boers decided to move to interior in search of the new land for agricultural undertakings.
(v) To transform the Composition of the local white population, the British encouraged the immigration of British settlers of South Africa with the aim of transforming the Composition of the local white population.
(vi) British Introduced land privatization, this put limitation on the amount of land that one could own. This violated the Boers practice of owning large farms.
EFFECTS OF BOERS TREK
(i) Establishment of Boer Republics, the movement of the Boer from the cape to interior led to the establishment of two Boer Republics which were Transvaal Republic and Orange Free State.
(ii) Occurrence of Afro-Boer Wars, the movement of the Boers to the interior led to conflicts between the Boers and Africans. This was due to the fact that Boers confiscated natives’ lands. A good example of those conflicts was the Zulu war with the Boers in 1837.
(iii) It accelerated mfecane movements on the interior Southern Africa; this is due to the fact that their penetration increased shortage of land in the hinterland.
(iv) The Boers had in the interim developed their own culture and language, in the interior areas where they settled.
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